The Origin of Mahá¾±yá¾±na
Bodhi Journal: 8th Issue (Jun, 2008) - Early Mahayana Sutras by Scott Quyen Ngo 2012-06-03
Mahá¾±yá¾±na cannot be considered apart from what came before it, so let us consider the events prior to the 1st century B.C.E.
The Buddha was born around 600 B.C.E. After 6 years of arduous seeking, he attained enlightenment at the age of 35. He then devoted the rest of his 45 years for the edification of beings. Three months after his parinibbᾱna (death and final release), 500 enlightened monks convened at R�jagaha, India, to recite the entire body of his teachings in what is now known as the 1st Buddhist Council, during which Up�li recited the Vinaya Rules [monastic rules] whilst Ānanda recited the suttas [discourses]. According to Ānanda, before passing into parinibbᾱna, the Buddha told him the monastic Order could abolish minor rules if it saw fit. However, Ānanda was so distraught at the time it did not occur to him to ask what rules they were. Thus, the leading monk, Ven Mahᾱk�ssapa, adjudicated the rules should be best left unchanged.
The 2nd Buddhist Council was held at VesÄ�lÄ« one hundred years later. Then, due to some unresolved controversial Vinaya issues the first schism resulted in that some monks left to form the MahÄ�saá¹…ghika (the traditionalist school were known as the SthaviravÄ�da). By the time of the 3rd Buddhist Council, convened by King AÅ›oka in the third century B.C.E at PÄ�á¹aliputra, there were at least eighteen schools with its own doctrines. The two dominated schools at the Council were the VibhajyavÄ�dins and the SarvÄ�stivÄ�dins, the Council favoured the former. Subsequently King AÅ›oka sent missionaries to Sri Lanka, led by his son, Ven. Mahinda, with the teachings of the VibhajyavÄ�dins which later became known as Theravá¾±da.
Some historians regard the Mah�saṅghika as the progenitor of Mahᾱyᾱna. However, modern scholars have shown that Mahᾱyᾱna did not result from schisms. The schisms that did occur were the result of Vinaya [monastic rules] rather than philosophical controversies. Paul Williams examines an early Mahᾱyᾱna text, the Ajitasena-vyᾱkaraṇa-nirdeśa Sūtra, finds that it shows no animosity towards the previous tradition, and points out the very gradual development of Mahᾱyᾱna. Popular support for Mahᾱyᾱna cannot be documented until the 4th or 5th century C.E. Furthermore, it seems that monks who lived in the same monasteries could have different doctrinal biases. Therefore, it seems Mahᾱyᾱna is not so much as a distinct school of Buddhism but a different religious motivation.
Mahá¾±yá¾±na texts were very open to lay religiosity and women were very much part of the new Mahá¾±yá¾±na trend. This led some to believe, and it is still a view common in Japan, that it originates from a lay movement. However, modern scholars have shown that although the new texts are more open to lay people they were still composed by monks. For example, although the new texts commend the actions of wise lay Bodhisattvas, they are still being urged to ordain and leave the lay life behind. Furthermore, Paul Harrison comments that 'although both men and women can ride in the Great Vehicle [Mahá¾±yá¾±na], only men are allowed to drive it' (Harrison, 1987: 76). Harrison’s paper in 1995 suggests the origin of Mahá¾±yá¾±na might have come from forest-dwelling ascetic monks attempting to return to the ideals of original Buddhism.[1]
Characteristics of Mahá¾±yá¾±na
One distinctive feature of Mahᾱyᾱna is the advocate of the Bodhisattva (one who ascribes to become a Buddha) ideal as opposed to the Śr�vaka (one who aims to become an Arhat, an enlightened disciple) ideal. A Buddha has the capacity to teach and help others to attain enlightenment, but to become a Buddha takes an infinitely long time and perseverance, relative to becoming an Arhat. This is one of the reasons why Mahᾱyᾱnists consider themselves more superior and altruistic than those who follow the Śr�vaka path, seeking enlightenment for themselves.
The rise of Mahá¾±yá¾±na is evidenced in a series of new texts. Between the 2nd Council and the 1st century C.E. saw the growth of a number of important Mahá¾±yá¾±na texts beginning with works like the Lalitavistara and Mahá¾±vastu, which describe the career of the Buddha in exalted, supra-mundane terms. However, three very important ‘foundational’ Mahá¾±yá¾±na texts are: the Lotus SÅ«tra (Saddharma-puṇá¸�arika SÅ«tra), the Heart SÅ«tra (Prajñá¾±pá¾±ramitá¾± Há¹›idaya SÅ«tra), and the Laá¹…kÄ�vatÄ�ra SÅ«tra.
Justification for the new texts is the belief in continuing revelation. Many of the important Mahá¾±yá¾±na texts were believed to have been related by Maitreya the future Buddha and other celestial Bodhisattvas or preserved among the serpent gods of the underworld until their discovery by Mahá¾±yá¾±na masters such as Ná¾±gá¾±rjuna. It would have been likely that these new texts received critical comments from ‘traditional’ Buddhists. Indeed, perhaps as a reaction to accusations by the previous tradition, Mahá¾±yá¾±na authors adopted the use of the pejorative term 'HÄ«nayÄ�na’ which refers to the ÅšrÄ�vaka path, perhaps at the time was directed at the most influential school, the SarvÄ�stivÄ�dins, whom are now extinct. The term HÄ«nayÄ�na should not be used nowadays for reasons that it is both a depreciative and historically incorrect term to apply to any existing Buddhist traditions. We shall now turn to important doctrinal tenets found in the ‘foundational’ Mahá¾±yá¾±na texts.
The Lotus Sūtra is an extremely important text in Mahᾱyᾱna Buddhism. It has a wide influence in India, China, Japan and Vietnam. The important themes in this sūtra are compassion and skilful means which are two of the most important concepts in Mahᾱyᾱna Buddhism. By means of various parables the Lotus Sūtra tells us that out of compassion the Buddhas appear and pass away on earth when in fact they are eternal and supramundane. Thus, the historical Buddha Śh�kyamuni was just an apparition created by the heavenly transcendental Buddha for the purpose of enlightening sentient beings.
The Heart [Perfection of Wisdom] SÅ«tra takes up another important concept in Mahá¾±yá¾±na Buddhism, the ‘perfection of wisdom’, that is to say the transformation of wisdom into the ‘perfection of wisdom’. This reflects the ultimate reality and is characterised by emptiness (śūnyatÄ�). ‘Ordinary wisdom’ allows us to realise that reality is made up of individual components but perfection of wisdom allows us to see that even these individual components are ‘empty’ because they have no ultimate existence as they are dependent upon the things that condition them. We can see this in everything around us. The dew drops, stars, bubbles and lighting are the more obvious examples but if we perceive and contemplate correctly, we would find that without exception everything that exists does so because of conditions. Thus, nothing inherently exists, or putting it another way, all that exists is empty (of inherent existence).
The third ‘foundational’ Mahá¾±yá¾±na text, the Laá¹…kÄ�vatÄ�ra SÅ«tra, tells us that what all we can know and experience in SaṃsÄ�ra [Conditioned existence] is the mind. This SÅ«tra forms the canonical foundation of the Cittamá¾±tra [Mind-Only] school. According to the Laá¹…kÄ�vatÄ�ra SÅ«tra, our inability to free ourselves from discriminating between object and subject causes us to undergo births and rebirths, and enlightenment is only attained by freeing ourselves from this dualistic discrimination. The Laá¹…kÄ�vatÄ�ra SÅ«tra also tells us that the mind is intrinsically pure, but discrimination defiles it. This is similar to impurities found in gold ore, which have to be removed to reveal the brightness and shining nature of gold. This means that the minds of beings are intrinsically pure, and all have the potential for Buddhahood. This appealing concept may partly explain the popularity of Mahá¾±yá¾±na. To sum up, the main features in Mahá¾±yá¾±na Buddhism are:
1. The advocate of the Bodhisattva ideal
2. Compassion
3. Skilful means
4. The supra-mundane nature of the Buddhas
5. Emptiness (Śūnyat�)
6. Saṃs�ra results from false discrimination
7. The universality appeal – all beings have the potential for Buddhahood.
Mahá¾±yá¾±na and ‘Early’ Buddhism
What appeared above might seem a far cry from ‘Early’ [what came before Mahá¾±yá¾±na] Buddhism. As innovative as they seem, yet all the important concepts can be traced back to Early Buddhism.
In Early Buddhism, the Já¾±takas [stories of the Buddha’s former lives] give us inspiring examples of the trials and forbearance of the Bodhisattva. There are over 500 stories of the Buddha’s former lives in the Já¾±takas, each provide a moving and inspiring moral lesson of how the power of good overcomes evil and the importance of integrity over fame and fortune. It is therefore not surprising that the Bodhisattva ideal came to be highly extolled.
Early Buddhism also extols the systemic cultivation of the Brahmavihará¾± [Divine Abiding] which entails developing loving kindness (mett
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compassion (karuṇ�), sympathetic joy (muditᾱ), and equanimity (upekkhᾱ). Developing these is seen to cultivate pleasant abiding here and now as well as a stepping stone to attain Deathlessness [Nirv�ṇa]. Since it is compassion that causes the Buddha to appear and teach sentient beings, it is no surprise then that compassion becomes a key value in Mahᾱyᾱna Buddhism.
Again in Early Buddhism, there are examples of the skilful means, including magical feats, in which the Buddha used to help beings attain insight. Similarly, in the Já¾±takas, the Bodhisattvaemployed many skilful means, often through various stratagems, to help others. In the Theravá¾±da Canon, the Buddha sometimes refers to himself as the Tathá¾±gata, a term also synonymous with Suchness, or reality. This suggests the transcendental and inconceivable nature of the Buddha, an idea which later became very important in Mahá¾±yá¾±na.
Emptiness (ŚūnyatÄ�), as expounded by the ingenious Mahá¾±yá¾±na Buddhist sage, Ná¾±gá¾±rjuna, is no other than Dependent Arising (Paticca-samuppada, Sanskrit:pratÄ«tya-samutpÄ�da) in Early Buddhism. Also, Early Buddhism holds that ignorance is the cause of suffering and existence in SaṃsÄ�ra, this is resounded in the Laá¹…kÄ�vatÄ�ra SÅ«tra’s concept of false (dualistic) discrimination as being the cause of suffering. Finally, the intrinsically pure nature of the mind that the Laá¹…kÄ�vatÄ�ra SÅ«tra refers to parallels with that of the subconscious continuitybhavaá¹…ga in Theravá¾±da.
We can thus see that most important Mahá¾±yá¾±na concepts trace back to Early Buddhism. In fact, according to Ven. Dr. W. Rahula, ‘there is hardly any difference between Theravá¾±da [a form of Early Buddhism] and Mahá¾±yá¾±na with regard to the fundamental teachings’[2] . Thus, Theravá¾±da and Mahá¾±yá¾±na:
Mahá¾±yá¾±na is not a school as such but a new movement in Buddhism, arising from earlier Buddhist tenets and the new sÅ«tras. It was probably developed by pious monks though it reinforces the role of lay religiosity. The key emphases are wisdom, compassion, and skilful means. Fundamental Mahá¾±yá¾±na concepts can be traced back to Early Buddhism. Thus, Mahá¾±yá¾±na is not wholly different to ‘Early’ Buddhism, we might perhaps say that is it a more ‘engaged’ form, moved by compassion.
The view of this article mirrors that of the writer on the origin of emergence of MahÄ�yÄ�na tradition. It does not represent the platform or the view of Bodhi Journal. Nevertheless, Bro. Quyen’s report and review on the origin or origins of MahÄ�yÄ�na movement does reflect the views of a multitude of eminent modern western and Japanese Buddhist scholars. The actual truth is that the exact historical origin of its emergence can not be ascertained with certainty or accurately identified hitherto. But, one thing is definite: Whoever adheres strictly to expedient devices or pedagogical strategies recommended by MahÄ�yÄ�na spiritual apostles will consummate his or her mental development emerging as a Perfect Man - Bodhisattva. He will undoubtedly actualize complete gnosis and culminates in the soteriological goal of NirvÄ�ṇa – the human great perfection. Any Buddhist classic, which can produce a genuine Bodhisattva, can be safely and legitimately designated as a SÅ«tra even though it may not be the direct Word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana).
References
Access to Insight website, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/
Cousins, L. S. 'Buddhism' in A New Handbook of Living Religions, ed. J.R.Hinnells, Blackwell, Oxford, 1997, pp.369-444
Gethin, R. The Foundation of Buddhism, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998.
Harvey, P. An Introduction to Buddhism – Teachings, history and practices, Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Harvey, P. Session 18. The Origin and Nature of the Mahá¾±yá¾±na, BudMO1 Buddhist Traditions, 2004, University of Sunderland, MA Buddhist Studies
Paul Harrison 'Who Gets to Ride in the Great Vehicle: Self-Image and Identity Among the Followers of the Early Mahá¾±yá¾±na' (Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol. 10, no.1, 1987, pp.67-90.
Rahula, W. http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha125.htm
Santina, P. D. The Tree of Enlightenment. 1987, http://www.ecst.csuchico.edu/~dsantina/tree/
Williams, P. Mahá¾±yá¾±na Buddhism – The Doctrinal Foundations, Suffolk, St Edmundsbury Press Ltd., 1989.
Williams, P and Tripe, A. Buddhist Thought – A complete introduction to the Indian Tradition, London, Taylor & Francis Group, 2000.
Originally posted by An Eternal Now:compassion (karuṇ�), sympathetic joy (muditᾱ), and equanimity (upekkhᾱ). Developing these is seen to cultivate pleasant abiding here and now as well as a stepping stone to attain Deathlessness [Nirv�ṇa]. Since it is compassion that causes the Buddha to appear and teach sentient beings, it is no surprise then that compassion becomes a key value in Mahᾱyᾱna Buddhism.
Again in Early Buddhism, there are examples of the skilful means, including magical feats, in which the Buddha used to help beings attain insight. Similarly, in the Já¾±takas, the Bodhisattvaemployed many skilful means, often through various stratagems, to help others. In the Theravá¾±da Canon, the Buddha sometimes refers to himself as the Tathá¾±gata, a term also synonymous with Suchness, or reality. This suggests the transcendental and inconceivable nature of the Buddha, an idea which later became very important in Mahá¾±yá¾±na.
Emptiness (ŚūnyatÄ�), as expounded by the ingenious Mahá¾±yá¾±na Buddhist sage, Ná¾±gá¾±rjuna, is no other than Dependent Arising (Paticca-samuppada, Sanskrit:pratÄ«tya-samutpÄ�da) in Early Buddhism. Also, Early Buddhism holds that ignorance is the cause of suffering and existence in SaṃsÄ�ra, this is resounded in the Laá¹…kÄ�vatÄ�ra SÅ«tra’s concept of false (dualistic) discrimination as being the cause of suffering. Finally, the intrinsically pure nature of the mind that the Laá¹…kÄ�vatÄ�ra SÅ«tra refers to parallels with that of the subconscious continuitybhavaá¹…ga in Theravá¾±da.
We can thus see that most important Mahá¾±yá¾±na concepts trace back to Early Buddhism. In fact, according to Ven. Dr. W. Rahula, ‘there is hardly any difference between Theravá¾±da [a form of Early Buddhism] and Mahá¾±yá¾±na with regard to the fundamental teachings’[2] . Thus, Theravá¾±da and Mahá¾±yá¾±na:
- Both accept Sh�kyamuni Buddha as the Teacher.
- The Four Noble Truths are exactly the same in both schools.
- The Eightfold Path is exactly the same in both schools.
- The Paá¹icca-samuppÄ�da [Sanskrit pratÄ«tya-samutpÄ�da] or the Dependent Origination is the same in both schools.
- Both rejected the idea of a supreme being who created and governed this world.
- Both accept Anicca [impermanence], Dukkha [suffering], Anattá¾± [not-self] and SÄ«la[morality], SamÄ�dhi [concentration], PaññÄ� [wisdom]without any difference (Ibid).
Conclusion
Mahá¾±yá¾±na is not a school as such but a new movement in Buddhism, arising from earlier Buddhist tenets and the new sÅ«tras. It was probably developed by pious monks though it reinforces the role of lay religiosity. The key emphases are wisdom, compassion, and skilful means. Fundamental Mahá¾±yá¾±na concepts can be traced back to Early Buddhism. Thus, Mahá¾±yá¾±na is not wholly different to ‘Early’ Buddhism, we might perhaps say that is it a more ‘engaged’ form, moved by compassion.
Editor’s Note:
The view of this article mirrors that of the writer on the origin of emergence of MahÄ�yÄ�na tradition. It does not represent the platform or the view of Bodhi Journal. Nevertheless, Bro. Quyen’s report and review on the origin or origins of MahÄ�yÄ�na movement does reflect the views of a multitude of eminent modern western and Japanese Buddhist scholars. The actual truth is that the exact historical origin of its emergence can not be ascertained with certainty or accurately identified hitherto. But, one thing is definite: Whoever adheres strictly to expedient devices or pedagogical strategies recommended by MahÄ�yÄ�na spiritual apostles will consummate his or her mental development emerging as a Perfect Man - Bodhisattva. He will undoubtedly actualize complete gnosis and culminates in the soteriological goal of NirvÄ�ṇa – the human great perfection. Any Buddhist classic, which can produce a genuine Bodhisattva, can be safely and legitimately designated as a SÅ«tra even though it may not be the direct Word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana).
References
Access to Insight website, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/
Cousins, L. S. 'Buddhism' in A New Handbook of Living Religions, ed. J.R.Hinnells, Blackwell, Oxford, 1997, pp.369-444Gethin, R. The Foundation of Buddhism, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998.
Harvey, P. An Introduction to Buddhism – Teachings, history and practices, Cambridge University Press, 1990.Harvey, P. Session 18. The Origin and Nature of the Mahá¾±yá¾±na, BudMO1 Buddhist Traditions, 2004, University of Sunderland, MA Buddhist Studies
Paul Harrison 'Who Gets to Ride in the Great Vehicle: Self-Image and Identity Among the Followers of the Early Mahá¾±yá¾±na' (Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol. 10, no.1, 1987, pp.67-90.
Rahula, W. http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha125.htm
Santina, P. D. The Tree of Enlightenment. 1987, http://www.ecst.csuchico.edu/~dsantina/tree/
Williams, P. Mahá¾±yá¾±na Buddhism – The Doctrinal Foundations, Suffolk, St Edmundsbury Press Ltd., 1989.
Williams, P and Tripe, A. Buddhist Thought – A complete introduction to the Indian Tradition, London, Taylor & Francis Group, 2000.
Sorry about the missing potion, very careless of me. Thanks AEN for posting the missing part.