An Animal A Day
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White Rhinoceros
The White Rhinoceros or Square-lipped rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) is one of the five species of rhinoceros that still exists and is one of the few megaherbivore species left. It is native to Northeastern and southern Africa. The rhinos tend to group in herds of one to seven animals, though they are solitary animals. On its snout it has two horns made of keratin fibers (and not bone, as in deer antlers).
A Southern White Rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum, at the San Diego Zoo's Wild Animal Park in Escondido, California.
The White Rhino differs from the Black Rhinoceros because of the shape of its mouth – it is wide, for cropping large swaths of grass; the term "White" actually comes from the Afrikaans word "weit", meaning 'wide'. A White Rhino's skin color is quite similar to that of the Black Rhino.
The White Rhinoceros also has a noticeable hump on the back of its neck which supports its large head. Each of the rhino's four feet has three toes. It is sometimes known as the Square-lipped Rhinoceros because of its protrudent lip that helps it graze on short grasses quickly in the savanna.
There are two subspecies of White Rhinos; as of 2005, South Africa has a Southern White Rhino (Ceratotherium simum ssp. simum) population of about 11,000, making them the most abundant subspecies of rhino in the world.
The Northern White Rhino (Ceratotherium simum ssp. cottoni), formerly found in several countries in East and Central Africa, are believed to exist in only three places:
- Garamba National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo;
- Zoo Dvur Králové in the Czech Republic, which has six rhinos; and
- San Diego Wild Animal Park, where three are located.
The rhinos have rarely reproduced in captivity; since 1995, only one female calf has been born, at Dvur Kralove.
Poaching
Like the Black Rhino, the White Rhino is under threat from habitat loss and poaching, most recently by an offshoot of the janjaweed. This increase led conservationists in January 2005 to propose airlifting White Rhinos remaining in Garamba into Kenya. Resentment of foreign interference within the Congo has prevented the airlift from happening as of March 2005.
Trivia
- The rhinos are capable of going four or five days without water.
Conservation status: Critical
Issue #110 -
Great Spotted Cuckoo
The Great Spotted Cuckoo, Clamator glandarius, is a member of the cuckoo order of birds, the Cuculiformes, which also includes the roadrunners, the anis, the coucals, and the Hoatzin.
Adult and juvenile Great Spotted Cuckoo, Clamator glandarius
It is a widespead summer migrant to southeast and southwest Europe and western Asia, and winters in Africa. It is a brood parasite, which lays its eggs in the nests of corvids (especially magpies), and starlings.
This species is similar in size to Common Cuckoo, but looks larger with its broad wings and long narrow tail.
Unlike the Common Cuckoo, neither the hen nor the hatched chick of this species evict the host's eggs, but the young magpies often die because they cannot compete successfully with the cuckoo for food.
The adult is grey above with a slender body, long tail and strong legs. It has a grey cap, grey wings, a yellowish face and upper breast, and white underparts. Sexes are similar. The juveniles have blackish upperparts and cap, and chestnut primary wing feathers. This species has a magpie-like flight.
It is a bird of warm open country with trees. Its food is insects, with hairy caterpillars, which are distasteful to many birds, being a speciality.
The Great Spotted Cuckoo's call is a loud cher-cher-kri-kri and variations.
Issue #111 -
Cuban Tree Frog
The Cuban Tree Frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) is the largest species of tree frog in North America. It generally lives in central to southern Florida, though it has been seen as far north as Georgia. It is, however, not native to this region; it was somehow introduced from the Caribbean.
Cuban Tree Frog, Osteopilus septentrionalis
It is considered to be an invasive species, consuming native frogs and lizards and posing a threat to the biodiversity of the areas into which it spreads.
Issue #112 -
Cochineal
Cochineal (Coccus cacti or Dactylopius coccus) is a scale insect in the order of Homoptera, indigenous to Mexico. A parasite, it lives primarily on the prickly pear cactus by feeding on moisture in its leaves.
Cochineal insects, Coccus cacti or Dactylopius coccus
Cochineal is also the name given to the crimson or carmine colored dye made from the dried bodies of the females (in the case of "cochineal") or the crushed eggs (in the case of cochineal extract).
The Insect
Cochineals are soft-bodied, flat, oval-shaped insects that cluster on plants. They secrete a waxy white substance over their bodies for protection. The feeding of the female cochineal often causes damage and sometimes kills the host cactus plant. Adult males have wings, are tiny, and cannot feed at all. They only live long enough to fertilize the eggs. Immature males can feed for a short time.
Cochineal insects on a cactus
The Dye
A deep crimson dye is extracted from the Cochineal insect female.
Dye Production
The insects are collected at approximately age of ninety days; it is a highly labor-intensive activity. The insects are killed by either immersion in hot water or by exposure to sunlight, steam, or the heat of an oven. The variety in the appearance of commercial cochineal is caused by these differing methods. It takes around 70,000 insects to make one pound of cochineal. The coloring comes from carminic acid.
History
The cochineal was used by the Aztecs. After the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors, it was introduced to Europe during the 17th century. The Mexican city of Oaxaca, Oaxaca, and its hinterland owed much of its prosperity in the 17th and 18th centuries to the cochineal trade. It has since been imported to and cultivated in other locations, such as Peru and the Canary Islands, where it became a lucrative export.
In the course of the 20th century, trade in cochineal diminished, as it was replaced by synthetic compounds. In recent years it has become commercially valuable again, because unlike many commercial synthetic red dyes, it is non-toxic and not carcinogenic (this is a point of controversy - see section below).
Usage
Traditionally cochineal was used for coloring fabrics. Now it is used as a fabric and cosmetics dye and as a natural food coloring, as well as for oil paints and watercolours. When used as a food additive, the dye may be labelled as E120 on packaging labels.
Wool dyed with cochineal
The water soluble form is used in alcoholic drinks with calcium carmine, the insoluble form, being used in a wider variety of products. Together with ammonium carmine they can be found in alcoholic drinks, bakery products and toppings, biscuits, desserts, drinks, icings, pie fillings, variety of cheddar cheese, sauces and sweets. It is also thought to give Campari and other Italian aperitifs their color.
Controversy
An unknown percentage of people have been found to have allergies to carmine, ranging from mild cases of hives, to anaphylactic shock. Cochineal is one of the colors that the Hyperactive Children's Support Group recommends be eliminated from the diet of hyperactive children.
Natural carmine dye used in foods can render them rather unattractive to vegetarian consumers, since insects are used in dye production.
Foodstuffs containing carmine are considered haraam (forbidden) by Muslims.
Issue #113 -
Walking catfish
The walking catfish (Clarias batrachus), also known as the magur or pla duk dam, is a species of airbreathing catfish with the ability to "walk" out of the water and across land.
Walking catfish, Clarias batrachus
It is a native of Southeastern Asia including eastern India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Burma, Indonesia, Singapore, and Borneo. It was probably introduced into the Philippines.
In the United States it is a non-indigenous invasive species, which is now established in Florida and reported from California, Connecticut, Georgia, Massachusetts, and Nevada.
The walking catfish was imported to Florida, reportedly from Thailand, in the early 1960s for the aquarium trade. The first introductions apparently occurred in the mid-1960s when adult fish imported as brood stock escaped, either from a fish farm in northeastern Broward County or from a truck transporting brood fish between Dade and Broward counties. Additional introductions in Florida, supposedly purposeful releases, were made by fish farmers in the Tampa Bay area, Hillsborough County in late 1967 or early 1968, after the state banned the importation and possession of walking catfish. Aquarium releases likely are responsible for introductions in other states. Dill and Cordone (1997) reported that this species has been sold by tropical fish dealers in California for some time.
In Florida, walking catfish are known to have invaded aquaculture farms, entering ponds where these predators prey on fish stocks. In response, fish farmers have had to erect protective fences to protect ponds.
Issue #114 -
Northern Shrimp
The Northern shrimp, Pandalus borealis (also called Pandalus eous), is a species of shrimp found in cold parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Many different English names are used, with little consensus (deep-water shrimp, cold-water shrimp, northern shrimp, Alaskan pink shrimp, pink shrimp, and northern red shrimp). Often the word shrimp is replaced by prawn, albeit incorrectly.
Northern shrimp, Pandalus borealis
P. borealis is an important food resource, and is widely fished. Its distribution in the Atlantic ranges from New England, Canada's eastern seaboard, southern and eastern Greenland, Iceland, Svalbard, Norway and the North Sea as far south as the English Channel. In the Pacific, it is found from Japan, through the Sea of Okhotsk, across the Bering Strait, and as far south in North America as Washington state. They live at depths of between 10 and 500 m, usually on soft muddy bottoms, in waters between 2 °C and 14 °C. In their 3-4 year lifespan, individuals can reach a length of 120 mm, with a carapace 35 mm long.
Shrimp alkaline phosphatase (SAP), an enzyme used in molecular biology, is obtained from Pandalus borealis.
Issue #115 -
Pyrenean Ibex
The Pyrenean Ibex, Capra pyrenaica, once ranged from Sierra de los Nieves in the province of Malaga into the French Pyrenees. A few hundred years ago they were numerous, but by 1900 their numbers were reduced to less than one hundred. Moreover, since 1900, their numbers have never risen above 40.
Pyrenean Ibex, Capra pyrenaica
The last Pyrenean Ibex was found dead on January 6, 2000. The reason the Ibex became extinct is a mystery. Some hypotheses include the inability to compete with other species for food, infections and diseases, and poaching.
The Pyrenean Ibex was one of four subspecies of Ibex. This is the best known species with smoother and more spreading horns.
Range and Population
Formerly found in the Spanish Pyrenees. However, more recently the population was restricted to Ordesa National Park in Spain.
Habitat
Capra pyrenaica preferred rocky, mountainous habitat. Its diet consisted of grass, herbs and lichens.
Taxonomy
The Pyrenean Ibex is in the Order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates). These animals are paraxonic which means that the plane of symmetry of each foot passes between the third and fourth digits. The third and fourth digits are quite large and bear most of the weight.
The Pyrenean Ibex is of Family Bovidae. All bovids have horns. Their skulls lack sagittal crests. They have hypsodont teeth.
Conservation status: Extinct (2000)
Issue #116 -
Japanese Bobtail
The Japanese Bobtail is a breed of cat with an unusual 'bobbed' tail more closely resembling the tail of a rabbit than that of an ordinary feline. The short tail is caused by the expression of a recessive gene. Thus, so long as both parents are bobtails, all kittens born to a litter will have bobtails as well.
A Calico (called "Mi-ke") Japanese Bobtail cat
The bobtail is a small oriental cat native to Japan and Southeast Asia. The breed has been known in Japan for centuries, and there are many legends and myths, as well as pieces of ancient art, featuring it. The Maneki Neko, or 'beckoning cat' is a bobtail.
Japanese bobtails may have almost any colour, but calico (called "Mi-ke", meaning "three-fur") or bi-colours are especially favoured by the Japanese.
Issue #117 -
Red Wolf
The Red Wolf (Canis rufus) is the rarest and most endangered of all wolves. It is said to have no natural predators. It is thought that its original distribution included much of eastern North America, where Red Wolves were found from Pennsylvania in the east to Texas in the south. In the last century, however, persecution, habitat destruction, and hybridization with Coyotes has brought the Red Wolf to the brink of extinction. Only about 270 remain; about 100 reintroduced into the wild in North Carolina and 170 in captivity. Historical habitats included forests, swamps and coastal prairies.
Red Wolf, Canis rufus
Traditionally, three subspecies of Red Wolf have been recognised, two of which are extinct. Canis rufus floridanus has been extinct since 1930; Canis rufus rufus was declared extinct by 1970; and Canis rufus gregoryi, the surviving subspecies, became extinct in the wild by 1980.
Anatomy
The Red Wolf is a medium-sized canid, smaller and more slender than the Grey Wolf but larger than the coyote. Adult males weigh between 25-35 kilograms (60-80 lbs) while females are generally two-thirds this range. Their coats may take a variety of colours: black, brown and grey through cinnamon and yellow. The reddish coats for which they are named was typical of some Texan populations. In the wild average life spans are estimated as low as four years; in captivity this rises as high as fourteen years.
Habits and Social Structure
Red wolves are shy and wary creatures. They prefer to hunt alone or in small family groups; pack sizes are smaller than those of their grey cousins, consisting often of one adult pair and their offspring.
As in other canids pair-bonding is strong and red wolves mate for life. They mate yearly and two or three pups are usually born in the Spring. Both parents help raise the offspring who are mature enough to leave behind parental support at six months of age.
Their diet consists of any available small animal, including rabbits, raccoons and rodents. They occasionally bring down deer and supplement their diet with insects and berries.
Taxonomy
The taxonomic status of the Red Wolf has long been controversial: the traditional view is that it is indeed a distinct species. An alternative view is that the Red Wolf is simply a recent hybrid between the Grey Wolf and the Coyote. In this view, Red Wolves arose when habitat loss and human disruption caused remnant Grey Wolf and Coyote populations to interbreed.
Extensive studies have thrown much light but little clarity on the question. On the whole, morphological, behavioural, and genetic evidence supports the view that there has been a distinct Red Wolf population for over half a million years, but much confusion and not a little controversy remains. There seems little doubt that there has been considerable hybridisation between Red Wolves, Grey Wolves, and Coyotes, and that in recent years the Red Wolf has declined and been replaced over most of its range by Coyotes and Coyote-Red Wolf hybrids.
In 1999, Brad White of McMaster University and Paul Wilson of Trent University found evidence suggesting that the wolves of south-eastern Canada (previously assumed to be Grey Wolves) were in fact Red Wolves, a view which has since found support in both fossil and morphological evidence. The Eastern Canadian Wolf, as this population has been named, ranges from Minnesota to Quebec.
One recent theory suggests that Red Wolves, Grey Wolves and Coyotes are all descended from a common ancestor population in North America between one and two million years ago. According to this theory, the ancestors of the Grey Wolf migrated to Europe and Asia at that time, becoming the Grey Wolf as we know it today, and then returned to the Americas about 300,000 years ago. At around the same time (300,000 years ago) the Coyote and Red Wolf populations diverged and began to differentiate. The modern Eastern Canadian Wolf population, in this view, is a mixture of different blood lines, including pure Grey Wolves, pure Red Wolves, and hybrids between Red Wolves and Coyotes, and Red Wolves and Grey Wolves. Grey Wolves and Coyotes do not hybridise directly.
The upshot of the taxonomic debate is not simply a matter of accurate classification: although the actual patterns of evolution are complex and subtle, human classification schemes usually rely on relatively simple, hard-edged divisions, such as the concept of species, which is ill-adapted to describing the wolves of North America. It remains a crucial concept, however, as many environmental policy decisions revolve around the species concept. In law, a distinct "species" is much better protected than a "mere subspecies".
Conservation status: Critical
Issue #118 -
California Quail
The California Quail, Callipepla californica, is a small ground-dwelling bird in the New World quail family.
These birds have a curving crest that droops forward - black in males and brown for females; the flanks are brown with white streaks. Males have a dark brown cap and a black face with a brown back, a grey-blue chest and a light brown belly. Females and immature birds are mainly grey-brown with a light-coloured belly.
California Quail, Callipepla californica
Their breeding habitat is shrubby areas and open woodlands in western North America. The nest is a shallow scrape lined with vegetation located on the ground under a shrub or other cover. The female usually lays around 12 eggs. Once they are hatched, both parents look after the young.
They are permanent residents.
These birds forage on the ground, often scratching at the soil. They can sometimes be seen feeding at the sides of roads. Their diet consists mainly of seeds and leaves, but they also eat some berries and insects. If startled, these birds explode into short fast flight. Given a choice, they will normally make their escape on foot.
They often gather in small flocks known as "coveys". Although this bird coexists well at the edges of urban areas, it is declining in some areas as human populations increase. They were originally found mainly in the southwestern United States but they have been introduced into other areas including British Columbia, Hawaii, Chile and New Zealand.
This is the state bird of California.
Issue #119 -
Scarlet Kingsnake
The Scarlet Kingsnake (Lampropeltis triangulum elapsoides) is a type of king snake that is found in the Eastern portion of the United States, particularly Florida. It is a subspecies of the Milk Snake, Lampropeltis triangulum. It is significantly smaller that some of the other king snakes, usually well under 20 inches long.
Scarlet Kingsnake, Lampropeltis triangulum elapsoides, on a US postage stamp
The snake has a pattern of black, red, and yellow bands that mimics the venomous Coral Snake. The key to differentiate between the two is found in the popular phrase "red on yellow, kill a fellow; red on black venom lack". Another version of the rhyme is "If red touches yellow, you're a dead fellow; if red touches black, you're alright, Jack", or "Red and black is a friend of Jack". In other words, if the red bands don't touch the yellow bands, you are normally dealing with a Scarlet King Snake.
Juvenile specimens of this snake often have rings that look more "off white" than yellow.
Issue #120 -
Atlas moth
The Atlas moth (Attacus atlas) is a large saturniid moth found in the tropical and subtropical forests of Southeast Asia, common across the Malay archipelago to Indonesia. In India, Atlas moths are cultivated for their silk in a non-commercial capacity; unlike that produced by the related Silkworm moth (Bombyx mori), Atlas moth silk is secreted as broken strands. This brown, wool-like silk is thought to have greater durability and is known as "fagara." Atlas moth cocoons have been employed as purses in Taiwan.
A female Atlas moth, Attacus atlas
Atlas moths are considered to be the largest moths in the world in terms of total wing surface area (upwards of c. 400 square cm or 65 square inches). Their wingspans are also amongst the largest, from 25-30 cm (10-12 inches). Females are appreciably larger and heavier. (The largest lepidopteran in terms of wingspan is thought to be the owlet moth Thysania agrippina.) Atlas moths are said to be named after either the Titan of Greek mythology, or their map-like wing patterns.
Atlas moths are predominantly tawny to maroon in colour with roughly triangular, diaphanous "eyes" on both forewing and hindwing, bordered in black. The purpose of these dramatic, gossamer portals is not clear, but they are thought to play a role in predator avoidance. Their bodies are hairy and disproportionately small compared to their wings. Patterns and colouration vary among the many described subspecies. Male Atlas moths are distinguished from females by their smaller size, more tapered wings, and larger, bushier antennae. Neither sex possess fully-formed mouthparts and therefore do not feed; they survive entirely on larval fat reserves throughout their 1-2 week adult life.
Forewing of a female Atlas moth
Females are sexually passive, releasing powerful pheromones which males detect and home in on with the help of chemoreceptors located on their aggrandized, feathery antennae. Males may thus be wooed from several kilometres downwind. Atlas moths are unsteady fliers and the female barely strays from the location of her discarded chrysalis: she seeks a perch where the air currents will best carry her pheromones.
Following a curt romance, the female lays a number of spherical eggs 2.5 mm in diameter on the undersides of leaves. Dusty-green caterpillars hatch after about two weeks and begin to tirelessly feed on the foliage of certain citrus and other evergreen trees. The caterpillars are adorned with fleshy spines along their backs which are covered in a waxy white substance. After reaching a length of about 115 mm (4.5 inches), the caterpillars pupate within papery chrysalides redolent of desiccated leaves. The adult moths emerge after about four weeks.
Interestingly, Atlas moths are also capable of parthenogenesis: any unfertilized eggs laid by a female will develop into males.
The Atlas moth was first discovered in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai, India.
Issue #121 -
Kissing gourami
Kissing gouramis, also known as kissers (Helostoma temminckii), are large tropical freshwater fish comprising the monotypic gourami family Helostomatidae (from the Greek elos [stud, nail], stoma [mouth]). Highly commercial food fish which are farmed in their native Southeast Asia, kissing gouramis are also popular with aquarists for the fish's peculiar "kissing" behaviour.
Pink Kissing gourami, Helostoma temminckii, rasping algae from gravel
Physical description
Typical of gouramis, the body is deep and strongly compressed laterally. The long-based dorsal (16–18 spinous rays, 13–16 soft) and anal fins (13–15 spinous rays, 17–19 soft) mirror each other in length and frame the body; the posterior most soft rays of each are slightly elongated to create a trailing margin. The foremost rays of the jugular pelvic fins are also slightly elongated. The pectoral fins are large, rounded, and low-slung. The caudal fin is rounded to concave. The lateral line is divided in two, with the posterior portion starting below the end of the other; there are a total of 43–48 scales running the line's length.
The most distinctive feature of the kissing gourami is its mouth. Other than being terminal rather than superior (as in other gourami families), the kissing gourami's mouth is highly protrusible; as its family name suggests, the lips are lined with horny teeth. However, teeth are absent from the premaxilla, dentaries, palatine, and pharynx. The gill rakers are also well-developed and numerous. The eye-visible scales of the body are ctenoid, whereas the scales of the top of the head are cycloid. Kissing gouramis reach a maximum size of 30 cm (12 inches) total length. There is no outward sexual dimorphism, but females are characteritically fatter.
This head-on view provides a close look at the kissing gourami's distinctive mouth structure.
There are two colour morphs encountered: the natural greens, which have lengthwise lateral stripes and opaque, dark brown fins; and the pseudo-albino pinks, which have a rose to orangy pink body and silvery scales, with transparent pinkish fins. There is also a "dwarf" or "balloon pink" variety, which is a mutated strain of the pink gouramis that are offered to hobbyists. The "balloons" are named so for their smaller and rounder bodies.
In the wild
Shallow, slow-moving, and thickly vegetated backwaters are the kissing gourami's natural habitat. They are midwater omnivores that feed primarily on benthic algae and aquatic plants, with insects taken from the surface and zooplankton and phytoplankton filtered through their many gill rakers supplementing their diet. The fish use their toothed lips to rasp algae from stones and other surfaces. This rasping action, which (to humans) looks superficially like kissing, is also used by males to challenge the dominancy of conspecifics.
Spawning occurs from May to October in Thailand. Kissing gouramis are open-water egg scatterers; spawning is initiated by the female and takes place under cover of floating vegetation. The eggs, which the adults do not guard, are spherical, smooth, and buoyant. Initial development is rapid: the eggs hatch after one day, and the fry are free-swimming two days thereafter. The Kissing gourami is the only member of the suborder Anabantoidei not to build a nest or otherwise care for its young.
In the aquarium
Kissing gouramis need a roomy tank in order to thrive; small juveniles will quickly outgrow a 70 cm (27 inch) tank. Kissing gouramis are tolerant toward conspecifics and heterospecifics of similar size, although male kissers will occasionally challenge each other; however, the "kissing" is never fatal. To prevent digging and to present enough surface area for algae growth, the substrate should consist of large-diameter gravel and stones. The aquarium's back glass should not be cleaned during regular maintenance, as the gouramis will feed on the algae grown there. Most plants will not survive the fish's grazing, so inedible plants such as Java fern, Java moss, or plastic plants are recommended.
The fish will accept vegetables such as cooked lettuce and any kind of live food. Water hardness should be between 5–30°dGH and pH between 6.8–8.5; the temperature should be between 22–28°C (72–82°F). When breeding kissing gouramis, soft water is preferred. As the fish do not build a nest, lettuce leaves placed on the water surface serve as a spawning medium. The lettuce will eventually host bacteria and infusoria which the fry will feed upon.
Issue #122 -
House dust mite
The house dust mite (Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus in Europe and Dermatophagoides farinae in North America), sometimes abbreviated by allergists to HDM, is a cosmopolitan guest in human habitation, gaining scientific prominence only in the 1600s after the importance of sanitation was recognized. They are considered to be one of the most common causes of asthma worldwide.
House Dust Mite, Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus
Description
Both male and female adult house dust mites are globular in shape, creamy white and have a striated cuticle. The female measures approximately 420 micrometres in length and 320 micrometres in width. The male is approximately 420 micrometres long and 245 micrometres wide. A member of the phylum Arthropoda, house dust mites have eight legs.
The average life cycle for a male house dust mite is approximately 19-30 days while a mated female house dust mite can live for up to two months, laying eggs for the last 30 days of her life.
Habitat
The house dust mite is more common in Europe than North America. The mite thrives in the modern environment of fully-carpeted, double-glazed, draft-proof homes, and is comfortable at 25 degrees Celsius and 75% relative humidity. The mites are particularly common in carpets and bedding.
The mite generally lives on shed human skin cells, which are pre-digested by the fungus Aspergillus repens. An average person sheds about 1.5 grams of skin a day (approximately 3-4.5 kg per year), which is enough to feed roughly a million dust mites. Further, dust mites in bedding derive moisture from human breathing, perspiration, and saliva.
Asthma
The house dust mite is one of the most significant allergens, implicated in allergic asthma, rhinitis, conjunctivitis and dermatitis. The protein responsible for the allergic reaction is DerP1, a protease digestive enzyme found in mite feces.
Measures to control house dust mites:
- Do not use a vacuum cleaner (bags and bagless are dust blowing tools)
- Regular damp dusting of surfaces
- Replacement of carpets with vinyl flooring
- Covering of mattresses and pillows with impervious materials
- Daytime internment of children's plush toys in a freezer
- Use of chemicals to kill mites (acaricides)
- Use of fungicides to kill Aspergillus
- Use an FDA approved air filtration & cleaning system (especially with high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA+ filtration)
- Reduce ambient humidty below 70% to inhibit growth of Aspergillus
Though these methods can help to reduce the level of house dust mites, attempts to eradicate homes completely have yet to be successful. Immunotherapy, in the form of injections of the allergen into patients, has been successful for some in much the same way that "allergy shots" have been helpful for sufferers of hayfever.
Conservation status: Secure
Issue #123 -
Iguanodon
Iguanodon was the first dinosaur recognized, the second dinosaur formally named and described, and with Megalosaurus and Hylaeosaurus, one of the three originally used to define the new classification, Dinosauria.
Reconstruction of the Iguanadon from BBC's Walking With Dinosaurs
Description
The Iguanodon is an ornithopod dinosaur, roughly halfway between the early "hypsilophodontids" and their ultimate culmination in the duck-billed dinosaurs. They lived between 120 to 140 million years ago, in the Barremian to Valanginian ages of the early Cretaceous period, though one unknown species is from the late Jurassic.
The various Iguanodon species are bulky herbivores, ranging from 6 to 11 metres (20 to 36 feet) in length, and averaging about 5 tonnes (5.5 tons) in weight.
Discovery and classification
Gideon Mantell's wife, Mary Ann, discovered the first tooth of an Iguanodon in the Tilgate Forest in England, in 1822. The tooth resembled that of an iguana, but was twenty times larger, so he named it Iguanodon, or "iguana-toothed", from iguana and the Greek word odontos ("tooth"). Based on isometric scaling, he estimated it might be up to 60 feet (18 metres) long.
A better specimen was discovered in a quarry in Maidstone, which Mantell was able to identify as an Iguanodon based on the tooth. The Maidstone slab allowed the first skeletal reconstructions and artistic renderings of the Iguanodon. The most famous mistake was the placement of a "horn", also discovered by Mantell's wife, on the nose of the dinosaur. The discovery of much better specimens of I. bernissartensis in 1878 revealed that the horn was actually a modified thumb, perhaps used for defense.
Still encased in rock, the Maidstone slab is currently displayed at the Natural History Museum, in London. The borough of Maidstone commemorated this find by adding an Iguanodon to their coat of arms in 1949.
Borough of Maidstone coat of arms (note the Iguanodon on the left)
Iguanodon anglicus was the original type species, but the holotype was based on a single tooth, and only partial remains of the species have been recovered since. In March of 2000, the ICZN changed the type species to I. bernissartensis, which is known from dozens of skeletons, some of which are very complete.
Remains of the best-known Iguanodon species have been found predominantly in Belgium, England, Germany, Spain and France. Remains of similar animals have been found in Tunisia and Mongolia, and distinct species have been found in Utah and South Dakota.
The largest find of Iguanodon remains occurred in 1878 in a coal mine at Bernissart in Belgium. With the encouragement of Alphonse Briart, supervisor of mines at nearby Morlanwelz, Louis Dollo oversaw excavation and reconstructed the skeletons. Some were publicly displayed from 1882; the completed restoration makes an impressive display in the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences in Brussels.
Species
I. anglicus
I. atherfieldensis
I. bernissartensis (type)
I. dawsoni
I. fittoni
I. hoggi
I. lakotaensis
Conservation status: Fossil
Issue #124 -
American Eskimo Dog
The American Eskimo Dog is a breed of companion dog originating in the United States of America (probably in New York City) in the twentieth century. The breed was formerly called a "spitz" or an "American Eskimo spitz" or a "spitz dog," and it achieved a high degree of popularity in the 1930s and 1940s in the U.S. as a circus performer. The American Kennel Club recognized the breed in 1994 and set the current standard for the breed. The United Kennel Club had recognized the breed long before 1994, and there is no difference between the two breed standards.
American Eskimo Dog
Appearance
The standard for the American Eskimo Dog calls for them to be white, with brown eyes (blue eyes, such as those found on the Alaskan Malamute, are a disqualification and a sign of poor health or breeding), and a compact body. The dog's length should be only slightly greater than its height at the shoulder. The muzzle is long and lupine (in contrast to the muzzles of Pomeranians). The ears are held erect and alert, and the tail should be feathered and curled on the dog's back. These dogs look very much like smaller versions of the Samoyed, to which they are related, and come in three standard sizes. The toy is from 9 to 12 inches (23 to 30 cm) at the withers; the miniature is from 12 to 15 inches (33 to 38 cm); the standard is from fifteen inches up to and including nineteen inches (39 to 48 cm).
American Eskimo braving wind and snow.
History
The American Eskimo Dog, or "Eskie" as it is often called, is derived from the German Spitz, the Finnish Spitz, and almost certainly the Pomeranian and Keeshond. The spitz family of Nordic dogs is one of the least altered by human husbandry and reflects most nearly the prototypical dog, from which stock all others have been derived. Archeology suggests that Neolithic dogs living with humans would today pass for spitzes.
Trivia
All of the Nordic breeds are marked by erect, triangular ears ("prick ears"), a tail that flips onto the dog's back in a spiral, and two coats of fur: an inner, downy coat, and an outer coat of guard hairs that act as weather protection.
Like many light-colored dogs, the fur beneath the eyes can become stained if not regularly cleaned.
Alternative name: American Eskimo spitz
Common nicknames: Eskie, Eskimo
Country of origin: United States
Issue #125 -
Northern Short-tailed Shrew
The Northern Short-tailed Shrew, Blarina brevicauda, is a large shrew found in central and eastern North America from southern Saskatchewan to Atlantic Canada and south to Nebraska and Georgia. At one time, this species and the Southern Short-tailed Shrew, B. carolinensis, were considered to be a single species.
Northern Short-tailed Shrew, Blarina brevicauda
It is slate grey in colour with light underparts. Its body is about 10 cm in length including a 2 cm long tail. They weigh about 21 g, about the same as a house mouse.
These animals are found in damp hardwood and coniferous forests and wet open areas.
They eat insects, earthworms, snails, small rodents and plant material. These shrews dig through leaf litter and can also tunnel in moist ground. They have scent glands that release a musky secretion which repels some predators; males also use scent to mark their territory.
Mating begins in early spring and may occur until late fall. The female has 2 or 3 litters of 5 to 7 young in a nest in a tunnel or under a fallen log.
Glands in their mouth contain a neurotoxin which allows them to immobilize larger animals such as snakes and birds.
Issue #126 -
American Black Oystercatcher
The American Black Oystercatcher, Haematopus bachmani, is a conspicuous black bird found on the shoreline of western North America. It ranges from the Aleutian Islands of Alaska to the coast of the Baja California peninsula.
American Black Oystercatcher, Haematopus bachmani
The American Black Oystercatcher is the only representative of the oystercatcher family (Haematopodidae) over most of its range, overlapping slightly with the American Oystercatcher (H. palliatus) on the coast of Baja California. Within its range it is most commonly referred to as the Black Oystercatcher, although this name is also used locally for the Blackish Oystercatcher and the African Black Oystercatcher. Its scientific name is derived by John James Audubon from that of his friend John Bachman. The species is not considered threatened.
Description
The American Black Oystercatcher is a large entirely black shorebird, with a long (9 cm) bright red bill and pink legs. It has a bright yellow iris and a red eye-ring. Its plumage varies slightly from north to south, being darker further north.
Behavior
The American Black Oystercatcher is restricted in its range, never straying far from shores, in particular favoring rocky shorelines. It forages in the intertidal zone, feeding on marine invertebrates, particularly molluscs such as mussels, limpets and chitons. It will also take crabs, isopods and barnacles. It hunts through the intertidal area, searching for food visually, often so close to the water's edge it has to fly up to avoid crashing surf. It uses its strong bill to dislodge food and pry shells open.
The American Black Oystercatcher is a territorial bird during the nesting season, defending a foraging and nesting area in one territory. Some pairs have been recorded staying together for many years. Nests are small bowls or depressions close to the shore in which small pebbles and shell fragments are tossed in with a sideward or backard flick of the bill.
Around 2 to 3 eggs are laid in this nest, these are hardy and can even survive being submerged by a high tide. The chicks are capable of leaving the nest after one day, and will stay in the territory for a long time after fledging (40 days). The fledged juveniles will stay in the territory until the next breeding season. If the parents migrate, that year's chicks will migrate with them; this happens more often in the north of the range.
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Blue-spotted Salamander
The Blue-spotted salamander, or Ambystoma laterale, is a mole salamander native to the Great Lakes states and northeastern United States, and parts of Ontario and Quebec in Canada. Their range is known to extend to James Bay to the north, and southeastern Manitoba to the west.
Blue-spotted salamander, Ambystoma laterale, on a U.S. postage stamp of 2003.
Description
These salamanders are between 8 and 14 cm in length, of which the tail comprises 40%. Their skin is bluish-black, with characteristic blue and white flecks on its back, and bluish-white spots on the sides of its body and tail. They have an elongated body, though they are not nearly as slender as the Jefferson Salamander. The vent is typically black, which contrasts with the paler belly. Larvae which have transformed may have yellow splotches; these turn blue once the individual becomes terrestrial. Occasionally, a melanistic individual may be found in the wild.
They have long toes: four on the front feet, and five on the hind feet. Typically, specimens will have 12-14 costal grooves. Males tend to be smaller than females, though they have longer, flattened tails.
Habitat
The Blue-spotted Salamander are primarily found in moist, deciduous hardwood forests and swampy woodlands, though they can be found in coniferous forests too. They prefer vernal ponds that retain water into mid-summer, to ensure access to a suitable breeding habitat. Underbrush, leaf litter, rocks and logs are commonly used for shelter.
Reproduction
Eggs are laid in small agglomerations attached to twigs, rocks or plants at the edge of a woodland pond or ditch. Clutches average a dozen eggs, and females may lay up to 500 eggs yearly. Males and females first mate when two years old. Breeding occurs in early spring near ephemeral ponds.
Eggs take about one month to hatch. At hatching, larvae have a well-developed mouth and eyes. Front limbs form at two weeks, and hind limbs form at three weeks. It will fully transform to its terrestrial state by late summer.
This species is also known to hybridize with other salamanders, especially the Jefferson Salamander, Spotted Salamander and Tiger Salamander. The hybrid of Blue-spotted salamanders and Jefferson salamanders has the binomial taxon Ambystoma platineum. Hybrid offspring are clonal triploid females, which reproduce gynogenetically.
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Housefly
The housefly (also house-fly or house fly) (Musca domestica) is the most common fly occurring in homes and indeed one of the most widely distributed animals and the most familiar of all flies; it is a pest that can facilitate serious diseases.
Housefly, Musca domestica
Physical description
The adults are 5-8 mm long. Their thorax is greyish, with four dark longitudinal lines on the back. The underside of the abdomen is yellowish. The whole body is covered with hair. They have reddish compound eyes. The females are slightly larger than the males and have a much larger space between the eyes.
Like most Diptera, houseflies have only one pair of wings; the hind pair is reduced to small halteres that aid in flight stability. Characteristically, the fourth long vein of the wing shows a sharp upward bend.
Species that appear similar to the housefly include:
-- the lesser house fly (Fannia canicularis), somewhat smaller and more slender than M. domestica, fourth long vein of the wing is straight.
-- the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) looks similar to M. domestica but has a longer piercing mouthpart, used to penetrate the skin of humans and animals in order to suck blood.
A dorsal comparison of adult stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (left), and house fly, Musca domestica Linnaeus (right).
Life cycle
Each female fly can lay up to 500 eggs (in five batches of 100 eggs each). Within a day, the larvae (maggots) hatch from the eggs; they live and feed in (usually dead and decaying) organic material, such as garbage or feces. They are pale whitish and have no legs. After several molts, the maggots crawl to a dry cool place and transform into pupae, colored reddish or brown. The adult flies then emerge from the pupae. (This whole cycle is known as complete metamorphosis.) The adults live from half a month to a month. After having emerged from the pupae, the flies cease to grow. Small flies are not young flies but the result of little food during the maggot stage.
Some 36 hours after having emerged from the pupa, the female is receptive for mating. The male mounts her from the back to inject sperm. Normally the female mates only once, storing the sperm to use it repeatedly for several sets of eggs. Males are territorial: they defend a certain territory against other males and try to mount any female that enters.
Two copulating houseflies
The flies depend on warm temperatures; generally, the warmer the temperature the faster the flies will develop. In the winter, most of them survive in the larval or pupa stage in some protected warm location.
Some species of wasps can parasitize and kill the pupae.
Typical behaviors
Houseflies can only take in liquid foods. They spit out saliva on solid foods to pre-digest it, and then suck it back in. They also throw up partially digested matter and eat it again.
The flies can walk on vertical planes, and can even hang upside down from ceilings. This is accomplished with the surface tension of liquids secreted by glands near their feet.
Lacking eyelids, the flies continually clean their eyes with their forelegs. Most of their taste and smell sensor cells are on hairs on their legs, and that is why they also keep rubbing their legs together.
Flies and humans
Houseflies originated in Africa; it is quite possible that they entered America along with Christopher Columbus.
In colder climates, houseflies only occur together with humans. They have a tendency to aggregate and are difficult to dispel. They are capable of carrying over 100 pathogens, such as typhoid, cholera, Salmonella, bacillary dysentery, tuberculosis, anthrax ophthalmia, and parasitic worms. Some strands have become immune to common insecticides.
In 2001, Garnet Hertz produced an art project in which a complete web server was implanted into a dead fly.
Conservation status: Secure
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Three-spined stickleback
The three-spined stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, is native to much of northern Europe, northern Asia and North America. It has been introduced into parts of southern and central Europe.
Three-spined stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus
Three subspecies are currently recognised.
- Gasterosteus aculeatus aculeatus is found in most of the species range, and is the subspecies most strictly termed the three-spined stickleback; its common name in England is the tiddler.
- G. a. williamsoni, the unarmored threespine stickleback, is found only in North America; its recognised range is southern California, though there are isolated reports of it occurring in British Columbia and Mexico;
- G. a. santaeannae, the Santa Ana stickleback, is also restricted to North America.
The three-spined stickleback reaches a maximum length of 11 cm. Although most specimens do have three spines on their backs, some have two or four. Three-spined sticklebacks can live in fresh, brackish or salt water, but it is chiefly a fish of shallow inland ponds and streams. They feed on worms, crustaceans, the larvae and adult forms of aquatic insects, drowned aerial insects, and small fishes. They are in turn preyed on by larger fish, and also by fish-eating birds such as kingfishers.
In spring, males defend territories where they build nests on the bottom of the pond or other body of water; the sequence of territorial, courtship and mating behaviours was described in detail by Niko Tinbergen in a landmark early study in ethology. Territorial males develop a red chest colouration, and Tinbergen showed that the red colour acted as a simple sign stimulus, releasing aggression in other males and the first steps in the courtship sequence from gravid females. Only the males care for the eggs once they are fertilised.
Sticklebacks are easily maintained in the aquarium, and are not currently considered to be endangered. They are popular subjects for laboratory research.
The three-spined stickleback was featured on a 14-franc postage stamp issued by Belgium in 1990.
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Woodlouse
A woodlouse, also known as a pill bug (genus Armadillidium only), armadillo bug, sow bug, slater, ball bug, potato bug, doodlebug, or roley-poley/roly-poly, is a terrestrial crustacean with a rigid, segmented, calcareous exoskeleton and fourteen jointed limbs. They form the suborder Oniscidea within the order Isopoda, with over 3,000 known species.
The common pill bug, Armadillidium vulgare, a species of Woodlouse, suborder Oniscidea.
Woodlice need moisture and so are usually found in damp, dark places, such as under rocks and logs. They are usually nocturnal and are detritivores, feeding only on dead plant matter.
In the United Kingdom there are 37 native or naturalised species ranging in colour and in size (3-30 mm) of which only five are common: Oniscus asellus (the common shiny woodlouse), Porcellio scaber (the common rough woodlouse), Philoscia muscorum (the common striped woodlouse), Trichoniscus pusillus (the common pygmy woodlouse) and Armadillidium vulgare (the common pill bug).
The common striped woodlouse, Philoscia muscorum
Some woodlice are able to roll into a ball-like form when threatened by predators, leaving only their armoured back exposed. It is this ability which explains many of the woodlouse's common names.
A female woodlouse will keep fertilised eggs in a patch on the underside of her body until they hatch into small, pink offspring. The mother then appears to be "giving birth" to her offspring.
The common pill bug, Armadillidium vulgare
Linguistics
In linguistics, asking what a person calls a woodlouse is a common question used to determine what part of the United States a person is from based on the name the person uses for woodlice. For example, in the south, they are almost always called "roley-poleys." In the northeast and western states, they tend to be called "pillbugs." Other names may be used in other regions.
Woodlice in culture and cinema
Tuck and Roll were the woodlouse acrobats who appeared as supporting characters in the Pixar film A Bug's Life. They have been immortalized in a "Tuck and Roll's Drive'Em Buggies" ride at Disney's California Adventure.
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Irish Elk
The Irish Elk (Megaloceros giganteus) is an extinct deer that lived in Europe during the Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene epochs. It is famous for its formidable size (about two meters at the shoulders), and in particular for having the largest antlers of any known cervid (a maximum of 13 feet from tip to tip). The name “giant deer” is sometimes preferred; although large numbers of its skeletons have been found in Irish bogs, the animal was not exclusively Irish, and neither was it closely related to either of the living species currently called “elk”.
Irish Elk, Megaloceros giganteus, skeleton at the National Museum of Natural History
The latest known remains of the Irish elk have been carbon dated to about 5700 BC.
The size of the Irish Elk's antlers is remarkable, and some evolutionists have felt that their purpose demands an explanation. One theory was that the Elk's antlers, under constant sexual selection, increased in size because males were using them in combat for access to females; it was also suggested that they eventually became so unwieldy that the Elks could not carry on the normal business of life and so became extinct. However, Stephen Jay Gould's important essay on Megaloceros demonstrated that for deer in general, species with larger body size have antlers that are more than proportionately larger, a consequence of allometry, or differential growth rate of body size and antler size during development. In fact, Irish Elk had antlers of exactly the size one would predict from their body size and no special story of natural selection is required.
The antlers do seem to have played a role in the animal's eventual extinction, however. Recent research has determined that due to the high amounts of calcium and phosphate compounds required to form these massive structures, the Irish Elk males had to deplete these compounds partly from their bones, replenishing them from foodplants when the antlers were grown. Thus, in the growth phase, males were suffering from a condition similar to osteoporosis. When the climate changed at the end of the last Ice Age, the vegetation in the animal's habitat also changed towards species that could not deliver sufficient amounts of the required minerals. Thus, the delicate balance between the animal and its environment was broken—coupled with hunting by humans (facilitated by the weakening of the males' bones during antler growth), this was the probable cause of this animal's extinction.
A significant collection of Irish Elk skeletons can be found at the Natural History branch of the National Museum of Ireland in Dublin.
Conservation status: Extinct (5000 BC)
Issue #132 -
American Curl
The American Curl is a breed of cat with unusual ears. The ears curl back from the face in a smooth arc toward the center of the back of the skull; they are otherwise perfectly normal cats. The breed is the result of a spontaneous mutation which occurred in a cat in California in 1981.
American Curl
The first cat, a black female domestic cat, was found and taken in by the Ruga family who named her Shulamith. All American Curls descend from her, the foundation female. In 1983, the first American Curl was exhibited at a cat show, and in 1987, the longhair American Curl was given championship status by The International Cat Association (TICA). In 1993, the American Curl set a precedent in the Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) by being the first breed to be admitted to the Championship Class as one breed with two coat lengths.
The American Curl is a medium size cat with no health handicaps associated with the curled ears. They are strong, healthy cats remarkably free of genetic defects that affect many purebred cats. The American Curl may have either curled ears or straight ears. The American Curl may have three degrees of curl - first degree, second degree, or third degree. The third degree is the preferred one. The straight ear American Curl has all of the loving personality of the curled ear American Curl but may not be shown.
The American Curl comes in two coat lengths - either long haired or short haired. The American Curl comes in all colors.
The American Curl, while still an uncommon breed, is found across the world from the United States to Spain, France, Japan, Russia, and many other countries.
Country of origin: United States
Issue #133 -
Crab-eating Macaque
The Crab-eating Macaque (Macaca fascicularis) is an arboreal macaque native to South-East Asia. It is also called the Cynomolgus Monkey or Long-tailed Macaque.
Crab-eating Macaque, Macaca fascicularis
It is used extensively in medical experiments, in particular those connected with neuroscience. It has also been identified as a possible vector for monkeypox. It is one of the types of monkeys that have been flown into space.
It is found throughout most of South-East Asia, including the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, as well as in the country of the Philippines. These monkeys are often unafraid of humans, and are found in many cities and villages. A population of Crab-eating Macaques, fed by locals, lives in the middle of the city of Lopburi in Thailand.
A Crab-eating Macaque at Batu Caves, Malaysia
Crab-eating Macaques are born with black fur, but the fur turns to a yellow-green, grey-green, or reddish-brown shade as they grow. They have dark snouts, and bluish abdominal skin. They live in groups of between 20 to 60 individuals. Generally there are about 2.5 adult females for every adult male. They live for about four years in the wild, but in captivity have been known to live for up to 38 years.
There is some significant diversity within the species and these differences are classified into 10 subspecies:
- Macaca fascicularis fascicularis
- Macaca fascicularis aurea
- Macaca fascicularis umbrosa
- Macaca fascicularis atriceps
- Macaca fascicularis condorensis
- Macaca fascicularis fusca
- Macaca fascicularis lasiae
- Macaca fascicularis tua
- Macaca fascicularis karimondjawae
- Macaca fascicularis philippinensis
Conservation status: Lower risk (nt)
Issue #134
