~ Mother Earth ~
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Lake Vostok
Lake Vostok is a subglacial lake in Antarctica . It is located at 77° S 105° E, beneath Russia's Vostok Station, 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) under the surface of the central Antarctic ice sheet. It is 250 kilometers long by 50 kilometers wide at its widest point, thus similar in size to Lake Ontario, and is divided into two deep basins by a ridge. The water over the ridge is about 200 metres (650 feet) deep, compared to roughly 400 metres (1,300 feet) deep in the northern basin and 800 metres (2,600 feet) deep in the southern. Lake Vostok covers an area of 14,000 square kilometers (5,400 square miles), approximately the size of Lake Ontario. It has an estimated volume of 5,400 cubic km (1,300 cubic miles) and consists of fresh water.
Lake Vostok's location within Antarctica (NASA)
Russian and British scientists discovered the lake's existence in 1996 by integrating a variety of data, including airborne ice-penetrating radar imaging observations and spaceborne radar altimetry. It has been confirmed that the lake contains plenty of liquid water under the kilometers-deep icecap, promising to be the most unspoiled lake on Earth. Its water is very old, with a mean residence time in the order of one million years (as compared with six years for Lake Ontario — which is typical for lakes of that size.)
The average water temperature is around -3 °C, below normal freezing point. As to why it remains liquid in the coldest place on Earth, it has been suggested that heat from the Earth's interior (from radioactive decay) radiates up from below to warm rocks on the bottom of the lake. The ice sheet itself may be acting as a blanket, protecting the lake from cold temperatures on the surface. Another possibility is that the lake has not yet had time to freeze after a temperate period that ended about 5,000 years ago. A fourth hypothesis has the lake remaining liquid due to the pressure of the ice bearing down on it.
Lake Vostok from space (NASA GSFC)
Researchers working at Vostok Station produced one of the world's longest ice cores in 1998. A joint Russian, French, and U.S. team drilled and analyzed the core, which is 3,623 meters (11,886 feet) long. Ice samples from cores drilled close to the top of the lake have been analysed to be as old as 420,000 years, suggesting that the lake has been sealed under the icecap for between 500,000 and more than a million years. Drilling of the core was deliberately halted roughly 120 meters (400 feet) above the suspected boundary where the ice sheet and the liquid waters of the lake are thought to meet to prevent contamination of the lake.
From this core, specifically from ice that is thought to have formed from lake water freezing onto the base of the ice sheet, evidence has been found, in form of some microbes, to suggest that the lake water supports life. Scientists suggested that the lake could possess a unique habitat for ancient bacteria with an isolated microbial gene pool containing characteristics developed perhaps 500,000 years ago.
Since it has been discovered that it consists of two separate basins divided by a ridge, it has been suggested that the chemical and biological compositions of these two ecosystems are likely to be different.
Lake Vostok is an oligotrophic extreme environment, one that is supersaturated with oxygen, with typically 50 times higher oxygen levels than those found in ordinary freshwater lakes on Earth. The sheer weight of the continental icecap sitting on top of Lake Vostok is believed to contribute to the high oxygen concentration. Besides dissolving in the water, oxygen and other gases are trapped in a type of structure called a clathrate. In clathrate structures, gases are enclosed in an icy cage and look like packed snow. These structures form at the high pressure depths of Lake Vostok and would be unstable if brought to the surface.
Due to this fact, if water is released from Lake Vostok due to drilling, it could gush like a popped carbonated (fizzy) drink can and, if not contained, open the lake to possible contamination and pose a potential hazard to scientists.
No other natural lake environment on Earth has this much oxygen. Organisms in Lake Vostok are believed to be capable of overcoming very high oxygen stress. They may have had to evolve special adaptations, such as high concentrations of protective enzymes, in order to survive the lake's oxygen-rich environment.
Due to the lake's similarity to Europa, a moon of Jupiter, confirming that life can survive in Lake Vostok might strengthen the argument for the presence of life on Europa.
In April 2005, German, Russian and Japanese Researchers found that the lakes has tides. Depending on the position of the sun and the moon, the surface rises between 1 and 2 centimeters. The researches assume that the fluctuation of the lake surface has the effect of a pump that keeps the water circulating, which would be necessary for the survival of microorganisms if there are any.
Issue #41 -
Whale Cove
Whale Cove is a small cove, approximately one-third of a mile (0.5 km) in diameter, located on the Pacific Coast of Oregon in the United States, approximately 2 mi (3 km) south of the town of Depoe Bay. The cove is located at approximately 44 deg 44 min N latitude.
Whale Cove, south of Depoe Bay, Oregon
A portion of the cove is protected as part of Rocky Creek State Park.
In 1978, British amateur historian Bob Ward proposed that Whale Cove was the location where Francis Drake spent the summer of 1579 during his circumnavigation of the globe by sea. The exact location of Drake's landing spot, at which he claimed a portion of the west coast of North America as "New Albion", has long been a mystery. It is usually assumed to be in northern California on the coast of Marin County.
Ward proposed Whale Cove as the actual spot of Drake's landing based on its similarity to a 16th century map made by Jodocus Hondius. Ward theorized that Drake may have conspired with Queen Elizabeth I to misled the Spanish about the true location of cove to keep the Spanish from discovering Puget Sound, which Ward believes that Drake thought was the Northwest Passage.
Detail of Jodocus Hondius map of 1589 showing cove in New Albion visited by Francis Drake.
One longstanding puzzling feature of the Hondius map is the small island on the peninsula protecting the cove. According to Ward, a portion of the peninsula protecting Whale Cove is submerged at high tide creating a similar island.
Issue #42 -
Panama Railway
The Panama Railway or Panama Railroad was the world's first transcontinental railroad. It stretches across the isthmus of Panama from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.
The need for the railway was inspired by the California Gold Rush. The project was begun in 1850 and the railroad was completed in 1855, with the first train running from ocean to ocean on 28 January of that year.
The railway cost some $8 million US to build (8 times the initial estimate in 1850), and presented considerable engineering challenges, going over mountains and through swamps. Over 300 bridges and culverts needed to be built along the route. Some swamps were found to require fill over 100 feet (30 m) in depth before a solid bed could be constructed. It was the most expensive railway per unit length of track built up to that time. It is estimated that more than 12,000 people may have died in its construction; the railroad company kept no official count. Cholera and malaria killed numerous workers.
The Panama Railway at Culebra Summit Station, 1854
It was largely built and financed by private companies from the United States. Among key individuals in building the railway were William H. Aspinwall, George Muirson Totten, and John Lloyd Stephens. Ownership of the railroad was originally by a publicly traded corporation based in New York City, which bought exclusive rights to build across the isthmus from the government of Colombia, Panama being a province of Colombia at the time. The stock of the Panama Railway Company quickly became some of the most highly valued of the era.
The railway carried significant traffic even while it was under construction, with traffic carried by mules over the unfinished sections. This had not been originally intended, but people crossing the isthmus to California were eager to use such track as had been laid. When only 7 miles (10 km) of track had been completed the railway was doing a brisk business, charging $25 per person for the train ride and another $10 to walk the remaining 40+ miles (60 km) of right-of-way across the isthmus. By the time the line was completed, more than one-third of its cost had already been paid for from fares.
Upon completion, the 48 mile (77 km) long railway was proclaimed an engineering marvel of the era.
The Atlantic terminal is in Colón, Panama; the Pacific in Panama City.
Until the opening of the Panama Canal, it carried the heaviest volume of freight per unit length of any railroad in the world. The existence of the railway was key in the selection of Panama as the site of the canal. In 1881 the French Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interocéanique purchased controlling interest in the Panama Railway Company. In 1904 the United States government purchased the railway from the French canal company. At the time railway assets included some 75 miles (120 km) of track, 35 locomotives, 30 passenger cars, and 900 freight cars.
The railway greatly assisted in the building of the canal, which closely paralleled and in some places took over the rail line. Parts of the rail route were moved during the building of the canal, and considerable additions were made to the rail system. The rebuilt and improved Panama Railway beside the canal was completed in 1912.
After World War II few additional improvements were made to the Panama Railway, and it declined in the late 20th century. In 1979 the US government handed over control to the government of Panama. On 19 June 1998 the government of Panama turned over control to the private Panama Canal Railway Company ("PCRC"), with majority shares owned by the Kansas City Southern Railroad. In 2000 and 2001 a large project upgraded the railway to handle large shipping containers, to compete in cargo transport with the Panama Canal.
Issue #43 -
Boldt Castle
Boldt Castle, located on Heart Island in the Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence River, along the northern border of New York State, is the major landmark and tourist attraction of the region.
Boldt Castle
George Boldt, proprietor of the Waldorf=Astoria Hotel in New York City and his family for several summers enjoyed an earlier frame cottage on Hart Island (the original name) which they greatly expanded. In 1900 the Boldts launched an ambitious construction campaign to build a huge masonry structure, one of the largest private homes in America. They engaged hundreds of workers for a six-story "castle," a major international landmark. In addition four other masonry structures on the island are architecturally notable. Equally distinctive is a huge yacht house on a neighboring island where the Boldts had another summer home and a vast estate, incorporating farms, canals, a golf course, tennis courts, stables, and a polo field.
Location of the Boldt Castle
The construction of Boldt Castle ceased abruptly in early 1904 after the death of Boldt's wife, Louise Kehrer Boldt. Today, Boldt Castle is accessible by ferry from Alexandria Bay, Gananoque, Ontario, Rockport, Ontario, and Ivy Lea, Ontario, and most of the grounds and buildings can be explored by the public for a fee. The boat-owning public may also dock on Hart Island for free and there is a US Customs and Immigration office on Hart Island. International visitors coming from Canada should have appropriate identification.
Heart Island and the nearby yacht house have been owned by the Thousand Islands Bridge Authority since 1977.
Issue #44 -
Pescadores Islands
The Pescadores Islands (P'eng-hu, from Portuguese, "fishermen") are an archipelago in the Taiwan Strait.
Pescadores Islands from 1896 map, Scottish Geographical Magazine
Penghu County
The Pescadores Islands are administered by the Republic of China as Penghu County of Taiwan Province. The county flower is a chrysanthemum called "The Immortals".
Penghu County in Taiwan
Abbreviation: Penghu
County nickname: Gaillardia Island
Capital: Magong City
Region: Taiwan Strait
County magistrate: Lai Feng-wei
Area: 126.8641 km², Ranked 22 of 25
Population
- Total (May 2004): 91,840, Ranked 23 of 25
- Density: 724/km²
Cities: 1
Townships: 5
County flower: Firewheel (Gaillardia pulchella)
County tree: Chinese Banyan (Ficus microcarpa)
County bird: Small Skylark (Alauda gulgula)
County fish: Spotted Grouper (Epinephelus megachir)
Penghu County emblem
History
"P'eng-hu" was first recorded in unofficial historical records and regional logs in 1171 during the Southern Song Dynasty. From the middle of the 17th century to 1895, Formosa (Taiwan) and the Pescadores (Penghu) were ruled by pirates, the colonial Dutch Empire, the Koxinga kingdom, and the Manchu Empire, successively.
The Manchu Empire then ceded these islands to Japan in 1895 in the Sino-Japanese Treaty of Shimonoseki.
In the Cairo Declaration of 1943, the United States, United Kingdom, and China stated it to be their purpose that "all the territories that Japan has stolen from the Chinese, such as Formosa and the Pescadores, shall be restored to the Republic of China."
On July 26, 1945, the three governments issued the Potsdam Declaration, declaring that "the terms of the Cairo Declaration shall be carried out," but did not formally do so in the Treaty of San Francisco. In the Treaty of San Francisco, Japan gave up the sovereignty over Formosa and the Pescadores but did not state to whom it ceded these islands.
Sub-county divisions
Penghu County comprises of one city and five townships: (in Tongyong Pinyin)
- Magong City: 34 municipal villages
- Husi Township: 22 town villages
- Baisha Township: 15
- Siyu Township: 11
- Cimei Township: 6
- Wang-an Township: 9
Altogether, there are 97 villages.
Issue #45 -
Steppe
In physical geography, steppe (from Slavic step') is a plain without trees (apart from those near rivers and lakes); it is similar to a prairie, although a prairie is generally reckoned as being dominated by tall grasses, while short grasses are said to be the norm in the steppe. It may be semi-desert, or covered with grass or shrubs, or both depending on the season. The term is also used to denote the climate encountered in such regions, too dry to support a forest but not so dry as to make it a desert.
The steppe of Western Kazakhstan in early spring
The world's largest zone of steppes are found in central Russia and neighbouring republics of Central Asia. The steppes begin east of the Volga river and extend through desert or semi-desert south of the Ural Mountains and to the north and east of the Caspian Sea. To the east of the Caspian Sea they extend through Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan to the mountain ranges of Mongolia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Afghanistan. To the north on the eastern side of the Urals is the forested West Siberian Plain which extends nearly to the Arctic Ocean.
Issue #46 -
Jacques-Yves Cousteau
Jacques-Yves Cousteau (June 11, 1910 - June 25, 1997) was a French naval officer, explorer and researcher who studied the sea and all forms of life in water. Cousteau was born in Saint André de Cubzac, France and died in Paris. Cousteau is generally known in France as le commandant Cousteau (Commander Cousteau).
Jacques-Yves Cousteau
In 1930 he was admitted to the École Navale (Naval Academy) in Brest and became a gunnery officer of the French Navy, which gave him the opportunity to make his first underwater experiments. He was training to become a pilot, but a serious car accident ended his aviation career. In 1936 he tested a model of underwater eyeglasses, perhaps the ancestors of modern masks.
Married in 1937 to Simone Melchior, he took part in WWII, and during the conflict he found the time to be co-inventor, with Emile Gagnan, of the first type of SCUBA diving equipment, the Aqua-Lung in 1943. Among the things that prompted him to develop efficient air-breathing diving free-swimming diving gear, were two oxygen toxicity accidents that he had earlier with rebreathers.
In the post-WWII years, still a naval officer, he developed techniques for the minesweeping of France's harbors and explored shipwrecks.
Named the president of the French Oceanographic Campaigns, in 1950 he bought his famous ship Calypso, with which he visited the most interesting waters of the planet, including some rivers. During these trips he produced many books and films. Cousteau won three Oscars for The Silent World, The Golden Fish and World Without Sun, as well as many other top awards including the Palme d'Or in 1956 at the Cannes Film Festival. His work did a great deal to popularize knowledge of underwater biology.
In 1963 with Jean de Wouters Cousteau developed the underwater camera named "Calypso-Phot" which was later licensed to Nikon and became the "Calypso-Nikkor" and then the "Nikonos".
Together with Jean Mollard he created the SP-350, an two-man submarine that could reach a depth of 350m below the ocean's surface. The successful experiment was soon repeated in 1965 with two submarines that reached 500m.
Cousteau was made director of the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco, created the Underseas Research Group in Toulon, was the leader of the Conshelf Saturation Dive Program (long-term immersion experiments, the first manned undersea colonies) and was one of the few foreigners that has been admitted to the American Academy of Sciences.
Cousteau's popularity was increasing. In October 1960, a large amount of radioactive waste was going to be discarded in the sea by EURATOM. Cousteau organized a publicity campaign which gained wide popular support. The train carrying the waste was stopped by women and children sitting on the railway, and was sent back to its origin. The risk was avoided.
In Monaco, the following November, an official visit by the French president Charles de Gaulle turned into a debate on the events of October 1960 and on nuclear experiments in general. The French ambassador already had suggested that Prince Rainier avoid the subject, but the president (allegedly) asked Cousteau in a friendly manner to be kind toward nuclear researchers, and Cousteau (allegedly) replied: "No sir, it is your researchers that ought to be kind toward us." During this discussion Cousteau found out that the reason for French experiments and research was American refusal to share its atomic secrets with its allies.
In 1974 he created the Cousteau Society for the protection of ocean life, which now has more than 300,000 members.
In 1977, together with Peter Scott, he received the UN international environment prize, and a few years later he also received the American Liberty Medal from Jimmy Carter, then president of the United States.
In 1992 he was invited to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for the United Nations' international conference on environment and development, then he became a regular consultant the UN and the World Bank.
Legacy
Cousteau liked to call himself an "oceanographic technician". He was in reality a sophisticated lover of nature, especially that of the sea. His work allowed people of all continents to visit life under the ocean's surface and explore through television the resources of the "blue continent".
The works that Cousteau produced also created a new kind of scientific communication that caused some criticism by formal academics. The so-called divulgationisme, a simple comprehensible form of sharing scientific concepts, was soon used for other disciplines too and became one of the most important and appreciated characteristics of modern TV broadcasting. The documentary information found in Cousteau's words a linear scheme to follow.
Now Cousteau's figure is admired, beloved worldwide through the many who love the sea, and is regarded to with a sort of devotion, as symbolic of adventure, nature and exploration.
Jacques Cousteau died on June 25, 1997, and is buried in the Cousteau family plot at Saint-André-de-Cubzac Cemetery, Saint-André-de-Cubzac, France.
Issue #47 -
Atlanta Motor Speedway
Atlanta Motor Speedway is a superspeedway in Hampton, Georgia, USA, 20 miles south of Atlanta. It is a 1.54 mile quad-oval track with a seating capacity of over 125,000. It opened in 1960, and added 46 condominiums over the northeastern side of the track in 1994. The track was almost completely rebuilt in a project that was completed in 1997, becoming one of NASCAR's fastest tracks in the process.
Atlanta Motor Speedway at the 2004 Golden Corral 500.
Facility Statistics
Location: 1500 Tara Place, Hampton, Georgia, 30228
Capacity: 125,000
Owner: Speedway Motorsports
Dimensions
Shape: Quad-oval
Distance: 2.48 km (1.54 miles)
Banking/Turns: 24°
Banking/Straights: 5°
Other highlights of the facility are a quarter-mile track between the pit road and the main track for Legends racing, a 2.5 mile FIA-approved road course, a 4,000 foot dragstrip, paved and dirt short tracks, motocross circuits, go-kart, and stadium truck racing facilities, and a junior drag strip. In 1994, the speedway hosted the Countryfest concert, attracting over 200,000 fans.
The track currently boasts the highest speeds on the NASCAR circuit, with a typical qualifying lap speed of abount 193 mph (310 km/h). The circuit has two faster tracks, the far longer Talladega Superspeedway and Daytona International Speedway; however, NASCAR mandates the use of restrictor plates on the carburetors of all cars that run on those tracks, and does not currently require the devices at Atlanta.
In early September 2004, AMS found an unexpected use: as a shelter for evacuees from Florida fleeing Hurricane Frances. While there were no indoor facilities available, visitors waited out the extremely slow-moving storm parked in their recreational vehicles, after creeping along for hours in traffic on nearby Interstate 75.
Issue #48 -
Golden Horn
The Golden Horn (in Turkish Haliç, in Greek Khrysokeras or Chrysoceras) is an estuary dividing the city of Istanbul.
With the Sea of Marmara, the Golden Horn forms a peninsula with a deep natural harbour. This site was originally settled by ancient Greek colonists as the city of Byzantium. The Byzantine Empire had its naval headquarters there, and walls were built along the shoreline to protect the city (by then renamed Constantinople) from naval attacks. At the entrance to the Horn, there was a large, floating boom-chain (a huge line of logs bound together by chains) pulled across from Constantinople to the fortress of Galata on the northern side, preventing unwanted ships from entering.
The Golden Horn from the southern or Constantinople shore, with the skyline of modern Istanbul on the far shore.
There were three notable times when the chain across the Horn was either broken or circumvented. In the 10th century the Kievan Rus' dragged their ships out of the Bosporus, around Galata, and relaunched them in the Horn; the Byzantines defeated them with Greek fire. In 1204, during the Fourth Crusade, Venetian ships were able to break the chain with a ram. In 1453, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II copied the tactics of the Rus', towing his ships across Galata into the estuary over greased logs.
In 1502 Leonardo da Vinci produced a drawing of a single span 720-foot (240 m) bridge as part of a civil engineering project for Sultan Beyazid II. The bridge was intended to span the Golden Horn. It was never built, but Leonardo's vision was resurrected in 2001 when a smaller bridge based on his design was constructed in Norway.
After the Fall of Constantinople to Mehmed, Greek citizens, the Greek Orthodox Church, Jews, Italian merchants, and other non-Muslims began to live along the Horn in the Phanar (Fanar) and Balat districts. Today the Golden Horn is settled on both sides, and there are parks along each shore. The Istanbul Chamber of Commerce is also located along the shore, as is a Muslim cemetery. The Galata Bridge, built in 1836, connects Old Istanbul with the districts of Galata and Eminönü. Two other bridges, the Atatürk Bridge and the Haliç Bridge, are located further up the Horn. Until the 1980s the Horn was a dumping ground for industrial waste, but has since been cleaned up and is a popular tourist attraction in Istanbul.
The Golden Horn from space
"Golden Horn" is its Western name. Its Turkish name, Haliç, (hah-LEECH) has nothing to do with gold or horns. The Haliç is merely the body of water which separates the "old" and "new" parts of European Istanbul.
The Galata Bridge crosses the Golden Horn at its mouth, connecting Old Istanbul (centered on Sultanahmet) to the south with Beyoglu (Galata and Pera) to the north.
This short river may have gotten its "golden" name because it was the commercial heart of the city, serving as the principal harbor of Byzantium, Constantinople and Istanbul for 2000 years, until the mid-20th century. Markets still abound here, and the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce has its offices right on the shore.
In Byzantine times, Italian city-states had colonies on its shores, and the southern end of the Galata Bridge at Eminönü was a Karaite Jewish quarter. In later times, Rüstem Pasha, grand vezir to Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent, built his exquisite small mosque here.
In Ottoman times, Sephardic Jews fleeing the persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition were welcomed into the empire and settled at Balat and Hasköy on the Golden Horn.
Issue #49 -
Hail
Hail is a type of graupel (a form of precipitation) composed of balls or irregular lumps of ice. It occurs when supercooled water droplets (remaining in a liquid state despite being below the freezing point, 0 °C/ 32 °F) in a storm cloud collide with some solid object, such as a dust particle or an already-forming hailstone. The water then freezes around the object. Depending on the wind patterns within the cloud, the hailstone may continue to circulate for some time, increasing in size. Eventually, the hailstone falls to the ground, when the updraft is no longer strong enough to support its weight.
An unusually large hailstone
Hail often forms in strong thunderstorms, often along a cold front, where the layer of air on top is much colder than that on the bottom. The smaller hailstones can bounce up and down between the warm and cold layers due to updrafts and gravity. The longer the stones bounce around, the larger they grow. For the same reason, larger hail can occur in warmer regions in the world due to stronger updrafts. These strong, severe, or even supercell thunderstorms can also occur in summer, even without a cold front.
Hailstones, while most commonly only a few millimetres in diameter, can sometimes grow to several centimetres or occasionally even bigger. Such big hailstones can do serious damage, notably to automobiles, skylights, and glass-roofed structures. Pea or golfball-size hailstones are not uncommon in severe storms. Rarely, massive hailstones have been known cause concussions or to kill people by causing head trauma.
The first image above shows an aggregate hailstone. It is a large hailstone with smaller stones visible. The ruler shows the size of this remarkable hailstone. The diameter is approximately 6 inches or 15 cm, the size of a grapefruit. In the picture below, large hail collects on streets and grass during a severe thunderstorm. Larger stones appear to be nearly 2 to 3 inches (50 to 75 mm) in diameter.
Hailstorm
The world record heaviest hailstone fell in Coffeyville, Kansas on September 3, 1970, weighing 770 g (1.7 pounds) and having a radius of 14.5 cm (5.7 in.). The largest hailstone fell in Aurora, Nebraska on June 22, 2003 with a radius of 17.8 cm (7 in.), but its mass was less than that of the Coffeyville stone, possibly because a piece broke off when it hit a house. Other, much larger, ice precipitation occur and are called megacryometeors.
Issue #50 -
Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf
The Filchner-Ronne ice shelf is in Antarctica bordering the Weddell Sea.
The seaward side of the Filchner-Ronne ice sheet is divided into Eastern (Filcher) and the larger Western (Ronne) sections by Berkner Island. The whole ice shelf covers some 430,000 km², making it the second largest ice shelf in Antarctica, after the Ross Ice Shelf. It grows perpetually due to a flow of inland ice sheets. From time to time, when the shearing stresses exceed the strength of the ice, cracks form and large parts of the ice sheet separate from the ice shelf and continue as icebergs. This is known as "calving".
In October 1998, the iceberg A-38 broke off the Filchner-Ronne ice shelf. It had a size of roughly 150 times 50 km and was thus larger than Delaware. It later broke up into three parts.
The calving of A-38 off Ronne ice shelf
The ice of the Filchner-Ronne ice shelf can be as thick as 600 m; the water below is about 1,400 m deep at the deepest point.
The Filchner-Ronne ice shelf is also known as the Ronne-Filchner ice shelf but the form Filchner-Ronne appears to be more popular. The ice shelf is named after Wilhelm Filchner and Edith Ronne.
Issue #51 -
Great Kanto earthquake
The Great Kanto Earthquake (Kanto daishinsai) struck the Kanto plain on the Japanese main island of Honshu at 11:58 on the morning of September 1, 1923. The quake was later estimated to have had a magnitude of 7.9 on the Richter scale. It destroyed the Japanese port city of Yokohama as well as surrounding prefectures of Chiba, Kanagawa, Shizuoka, and Tokyo.
Kanto region, Japan
According to most reliable sources, at least 105,385 lost their lives and over 37,000 were reported missing, believed dead. Most of the fatalities were caused by 88 fires which broke out separately and spread rapidly due to high winds from a typhoon near the Noto peninsula. In several places, firestorms were observed - the largest of which claimed at least 30,000 lives at Rikugun Honjo Hifukusho. As the earthquake had caused water mains to break, putting out the fires took nearly two full days until late in the morning of September 3.
Destruction caused by the Great Kanto Earthquake, 1923.
Over 570,000 homes were destroyed, leaving an estimated 1.9 million homeless or refugees. The damage is estimated to have exceeded one billion U.S. dollars at contemporary values.
The chaos and panic created by the earthquake led to rumours of Koreans looting and committing arson. Hundreds, perhaps thousands of Koreans and people from Okinawa were killed by civilian militias. The total death toll for Koreans including those killed by the disaster was estimated at around 6,000. In many places, check points were established to check whether travellers were looters or merely trespassers. Socialists like Hirasawa Keishichi and anarchists like Osugi Sakae and Ito Noe were killed because of the fear that they would use this opportunity to overthrow the government.
After the earthquake, Goto Shinpei organized a reconstruction plan of Tokyo with modern networks of roads, trains, and public services. Parks were placed all over Tokyo to work as a refugee spots and public buildings were constructed with more strict standards than private buildings to accommodate refugees. However, the outbreak of World War II and the subsequent destruction severely limited resources. In some places, construction is still ongoing today.
In 1960, September 1 was designated as Disaster Prevention Day to commemorate the earthquake and remind people of the importance of preparation, as September and October are the middle of the typhoon season. Public and private organizations host disaster drills. Tokyo is located near a fault line under Izu peninsula which, on average, causes a major earthquake about once every 70 years.
Issue #52 -
Alborz
Alborz, also written as Alburz or Elburz, is a mountain range in northern Iran, stretching from the borders of Armenia in the north-west to the southern end of the Caspian Sea, where also Tehran and Iran's highest peak, Damavand (5,604 m) are, and ending in the east at the borders of Turkmenistan and Afghanistan.
Alborz Mountains, underneath clouds seen from Tehran
The Alborz mountain range forms a barrier between the south Caspian and the Qazvin-Tehran plateau. It is only 60-130 km wide and consists of sedimentary series dating from Upper Devonian to Oligocene, prevalently jurassic limestone over a granite core.
Alborz enjoys a central role in the historical texts of Iran such as the Shahnama, and also in Persian mythology.
It should not be confused with the Elbrus mountain in the Caucasus mountains.
View of the Alborz range from near Tehran
Issue #53 -
Cumulus
A cumulus cloud is a cloud belonging to a class characterized by dense individual elements in the form of puffs, mounds or towers, with flat bases and tops that often resemble cauliflower. They are formed in the troposphere at a lower altitude than altocumulus, usually below 8,000 feet (2,400 metres). "Cumulus" is Latin for "heap", related to "accumulation".
Cumulus clouds over ruins in Mexico, showing the puffy shape and dense occurrence typical of the clouds.
They have often been described as cauliflower-like in structure. They occur at heights of 500-6,000 meters in elevation from the earth and most often occur scattered or in dense heaped packs. They are formed due to buoyant upward convection during warm, anti-cyclonic summer weather.
Towering cumulus with a rain-free base.
Issue #54 -
London Eye
The London Eye, sometimes called the Millennium Wheel, is the largest observation wheel in the world (though often erroneously called a Ferris wheel), and has been since its opening at the end of 1999. It stands 135 metres (443 feet) high on the western end of Jubilee Gardens, on the South Bank of the River Thames in Lambeth, London, England, north of Westminster Bridge. It is adjacent to London's County Hall, and stands opposite the offices of the Ministry of Defence situated in Westminster which it overlooks to the west.
The London Eye seen from Westminster Bridge
History
Designed by architects David Marks and Julia Barfield, the wheel carries 32 sealed, air conditioned, passenger capsules attached to its external circumference. It rotates slowly (at a rate of about 1.6 km/h or 1 mph) so that a complete revolution takes about 30 minutes to complete. The wheel does not usually stop to take on passengers; its rotation is so slow that passengers can easily walk on and off the moving capsules at ground level. It is, however, stopped on occasion to allow disabled or elderly passengers time to alight safely. Structurally the Eye resembles a huge spoked bicycle wheel, and was depicted as such in a poster advertising a charity cycle race.
The London Eye at night
The wheel was constructed in sections which were floated up the river Thames on barges and assembled lying flat on pontoons. Once the wheel was complete it was raised into its upright position by cranes. The wheel was initially lifted at a rate of about 2 degrees per hour until it reached 65 degrees, where it stayed for a week while engineers prepared for the second phase of the lift.
The Eye was opened by British Prime Minister Tony Blair on December 31, 1999, although it was not actually opened to the public until March 2000 because of technical problems. Since its opening, the Eye, operated by Tussauds Group but sponsored by British Airways, has become a major landmark and tourist attraction. Recently, The London Eye was voted the world's best tourist attraction in a poll commissioned by the snack company Pringles.
Capsules at the top of the wheel
The Eye enjoyed a warmer reception from the British public upon its opening than London's other significant Millennium project, the Dome, although the delay in opening had caused some press scepticism. By July 2002 around 8.5 million people had 'flown' the eye. It originally had planning permission only for five years, but at that time Lambeth Council agreed plans to make the attraction permanent.
Although the Eye is currently listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the tallest observation wheel in the world, it is unlikely to keep that title for long. Plans have been announced to build a 170 m wheel on the Las Vegas Strip and a 200 m wheel in Shanghai. (By comparison, the original 1893 Ferris wheel was 75 m high).
The Eye seen above Westminster Bridge
Ownership of the Eye is divided between British Airways with 33 percent, the Tussauds Group and its creators.
The London Eye in film and television
Because of its prominence on the skyline, the London Eye is often used as part of an "establishing" shot to place the viewers in modern-day London.
-- It featured (as a subtle joke) in the movie A Knight's Tale in a portion of the movie which takes place in the London of the Middle Ages.
-- It features as a central element in the storyline of the episode Rose in the 2005 season of Doctor Who.
Panorama view from the London Eye
Coordinates: 51° 30' 12'' N 00° 07' 11'' W
Issue #55 -
Alaska Panhandle
The Alaska Panhandle is a region of the American state of Alaska, comprising the coast just west of the British Columbia province of Canada. In many places, the international border runs along the crest of the Pacific Range of mountains, called the Coast Mountains or the "mainland".
Inland view of the Alaska Panhandle
The Panhandle includes the Tongass National Forest, Glacier Bay National Park, Alaska's Inside Passage, and a myriad of large and small islands.
Wildlife includes grizzly bears, black bears, wolves, Sitka deer, humpback whales, orcas, five species of salmon, bald eagles, harlequin ducks, scoters, and murrelets.
Major cities are Juneau, Sitka, and Ketchikan. Other towns are Petersburg, Wrangell, Metlakatla, Haines, Hoonah, Angoon, Kake, Craig, Klawock, Yakutat, and Skagway. There are also many tiny (i.e. less than 100 people) towns and villages, such as Pelican, Tenakee Springs, Port Protection, Hyder, Meyers Chuck, and Gustavus.
Map of Alaska, showing the Alaska Panhandle just west of the British Columbia province of Canada
On August 20, 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt established the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve, which formed the heart of the Tongass National Forest that covers most of the region.
Issue #56 -
Heligoland
Heligoland (in German, Helgoland and in North Frisian, Lun, Hålilönj) is a small German island in the North Sea. It is triangular-shaped and approximately 2 km long, though a smaller island east of it is usually also included.
An ex-British possession, the islands (population 1,650) are located in the Heligoland Bight or German Bight in the south-east corner of the North Sea. They are approximately two hours' sailing time from the mouth of the river Elbe.
Location of Heligoland in Germany
Geography
Heligoland is located 70 km from the German coast line, and actually consists of two islands: the populated 1.0 km² main island (Hauptinsel) to the west and the Düne ("dune") to the east, which is somewhat smaller at 0.7 km², as well as lower, surrounded by sand beaches and not permanently inhabited. They were connected until 1720, when the natural connection was destroyed by a storm flood. The highest point is on the main island, reaching 61 meters from sea level. The two islands are part of the district Pinneberg of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. The main island has a good harbour and is frequented mostly by sailing yachts.
The two islands of Heligoland
Geology
The island of Heligoland is a geological oddity — the presence of the main island's characteristical red sedimentary rock in the middle of the German Bight is unusual. It is not known to form cliffs anywhere else along the North Sea coast. The formation itself is from the early Eocene geologic age. It is younger than and layered on top of a much thicker bedrock of white chalk, the very same which is well known to form the white cliffs of Dover, and cliffs of Danish and German islands in the Baltic Sea. In fact, a small chalk rock close to Helgoland, called the "whitte klippe" (white cliff) is known to have existed within sight of the island to the west till the 18th century, when storm floods finally eroded it to below sea level. Helgoland's rock is significantly harder than the postglacial sediments and sands forming the islands and coastlines to the east of the island. This is why the core of the island, which a thousand years ago was still surrounded by a large, low-laying marshland and sand dunes and separated from coast in the east only by narrow channels, has remained to this day, although the onset of the North sea has long eroded away all of its surroundings. A small piece of Helgoland's sand dunes remains — the sand isle just across the harbour called "die Düne" (the Dune), which today holds the air strip.
History
The German Bight and the area around the island is known to have been inhabited since prehistoric times. Tools made of flint have been recovered from the bottom of the sea surrounding Heligoland.
In AD 697, Radbod, the last Frisian king, retreated to the then single island after his defeat by the Franks. By 1231 the island is listed as the property of the Danish king Valdemar II. From then until 1714 ownership switched several times between Denmark and the Duchy of Schleswig, with one period of control by the Hanseatic City of Hamburg. In August 1714 it was captured by Denmark, and in 1807 it was seized by the British during the Napoleonic wars.
Britain gave up the islands to Germany in 1890, and gave up their interests in Madagascar to the French, in return for those countries quitting their claims to the African island of Zanzibar (now a part of Tanzania), largely so the British could intervene there to suppress the slave trade. A "grandfathering"/optant approach prevented the Heligolanders (as they were named in the British measures) from forfeiting advantages because of this imposed change of status.
Under the German Empire, the islands became a major naval base, and during the First World War the civil population was evacuated to the mainland. The first naval engagement of the war, the Battle of Heligoland Bight was fought nearby in the first month of the war. The islanders returned in 1918, but during the Nazi era the naval base was reactivated. During the Second World War the islanders remained on the main island, but on 18 April 1945 over a thousand allied bombers attacked the islands leaving nothing standing. The civil population was protected in rock shelters, most of the 128 people killed being anti-aircraft crews. The islands were evacuated the following night.
Heligoland during World War I
From 1945 to 1952 the uninhabited islands were used as a bombing range. On 18 April 1947, the Royal Navy detonated 6800 tons of explosives in a concerted attempt to destroy the main island. While the military installations were destroyed, most of the island remained. In 1952 the islands were restored to the German authorities, which had to clear a huge amount of undetonated ammunition, landscape the main island, and rebuild the houses before it could be reinhabited.
It is now a holiday resort once again and enjoys a tax exempt status, so much of the economy is founded on sales of cigarettes, alcoholic beverages and perfumes to tourists that visit the islands. The islands are also outside the Schengen area. Its inhabitants are ethnic Friesians who speak (besides German) a distinctive Heligoland variety of the North Frisian language(s).
Philately
While Heligoland was a British possession about 20 postage stamps were issued between 1867 and 1890. They have the distinction of being the first multi-colored stamps and are still considered attractive. There were up to eight printings of a single denomination and also a large volume of reprints which are known as the Berlin, Leipzig and Hamburg Reprints, respectively. The Berlin reprints are sometimes better quality than the originals. The reprints were done between 1875 and 1895. Consequently many "old" collections contain reprints rather than originals. Some believe there were seven million reprints as compared to the known 1½ million originals, of which perhaps half were sold through the post office and the remainder sold to dealers when withdrawn from use. A few printings were never postally sold but nevertheless found their way into the hands of dealers. The stamps were printed by the Prussian State Printing Office in Berlin. They were denominated in the Hamburg Schilling until 1875, when both German Reich and English values appeared on each stamp issue (the Farthing/Pfennig issues). All are embossed with a silhouette of Queen Victoria excepting the four highest values which represent Heligoland escutcheons. Mint stamps of Heligoland are moderate to medium priced but with some running to 1000 Euros (2005) rarities. Some used stamps have brought 4800 Euros at auction and some covers have brought 10 or 12 thousand Euros. This is an inducement for forgery. Because used stamps are often more valuable than mint stamps, forged postal cancellations are plentiful and are the rule on purported high-value items. Because of the many forged cancellations and many reprints collectors of Heligoland stamps are advised to either become expert or rely on specialists; most reputable dealers will not handle them because of the prevalence of reprints and forgeries. The collector who wishes to become expert is advised to acquaint himself with the Michel Deutschland Spezial Katalog and acquire, at least, Helmuth Lemberger's Helgoland Philatelie. Most of the philatelic literature is in German. See link.
Bird trap
Heligoland gave its name to the Heligoland trap, used in bird ringing.
Issue #57 -
Lake Toba
Lake Toba is a large lake, 100km long and 30km wide, in the middle of the northern part of the Indonesian island of Sumatra.
View of Lake Toba
Geology
In 1949 the Dutch geologist Rein van Bemmelen reported that Lake Toba was surrounded by a layer of ignimbrite rocks, and was a large volcanic caldera. Later researchers found rhyolite ash similar to that in the ignimbrite around Toba in Malaysia and India, 3,000 km away. Oceanographers discovered Toba ash on the floor of the eastern Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal.
Lake Toba, Sumatra, Indonesia - Landsat satellite photo
The Toba eruption is dated at 73,000 ± 4,000 years ago. It had a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8, making it the most recent eruption of a "supervolcano". Bill Rose and Craig Chesner of Michigan Technological University deduced that the total amount of erupted material was about 2,800 km³; around 2,000 km³ of ignimbrite that flowed over the ground and around 800 km³ that fell as ash, with the wind blowing most of it to the west. Such a huge eruption probably lasted nearly two weeks. Very few plants or animals in Indonesia would have survived, and it is possible that the eruption caused a planet-wide die-off. There is some evidence, based on mitochondrial DNA, that the human race was reduced to only a few thousand individuals by the Toba eruption (Toba catastrophe theory).
A large area collapsed after the ejection of that amount of subsurface material, forming a caldera, which filled with water creating Lake Toba. Later, the floor of the caldera uplifted to form Samosir, a large island in the lake. Such uplifts are common in very large calderas, apparently due to the upward pressure of unerupted magma. Toba is probably the largest resurgent caldera on Earth.
Lake Toba, with Samosir Island in the lake - Landsat satellite photo
There have been no historic eruptions at Toba, but large earthquakes have occurred, the most recent in 1987 along the southern shore of the lake. The underwater fault off the west coast of Sumatra has had several major earthquakes since 1995, including the ~9.0 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and the 8.7 2005 Sumatran earthquake.
People
Most of the people who live around Lake Toba are ethnically Bataks. Traditional Batak houses are noted for their distinctive roofs (which curve upwards at each end, like a boat's hull does) and their colorful decor.
Children playing in Lake Toba
Issue #58 -
Savanna
Savanna is a grassland dotted with trees, and occurs in several types of biomes. In savannas, grasses form the predominant vegetation type, usually mixed with herbs and shrubs, with trees scattered individually or in small clumps. Savannas are sometimes a transitional zone, occurring between forest or woodland regions and grassland regions. Savanna ecoregions are of several different types:
Tropical and subtropical savannas are classified with tropical and subtropical savannas and shrublands as the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. The savannas of Africa, including the Serengeti, famous for its wildlife, are typical of this type.
Equatorial savanna in the East Province of Cameroon
Temperate savannas are mid-latitude savannas with wetter summers and drier winters. They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome.
Mediterranean savannas are mid-latitude savannas in Mediterranean climate regions, with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers, part of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub biome. The oak savannas of California, part of the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, fall into this category.
Flooded savannas are savannas that are flooded seasonally or year-round. They are classified with flooded savannas as the flooded grasslands and savannas biome, which occurs mostly in the tropics and subtropics.
Montane savannas are high-altitude savannas, located in a few spots around the world's high mountain regions, part of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome. The highland savannas of the Angolan scarp savanna and woodlands ecoregion are an example.
Issue #59 -
Valley of the Kings
The Valley of the Kings, or Wadi el-Muluk in Arabic, is a valley in Egypt where tombs were built for the Pharaohs of the New Kingdom, the Eighteenth through Twentieth Dynasties.
Wadi el-Muluk means valley of the kings. The valley is located on the west bank of the Nile across from Thebes (modern Luxor). It is separated into the East and West Valley, with most of the important tombs in the East Valley. The West Valley has only one tomb open to the public: the tomb of Ay, Tutankhamun's successor.
Valley of the Kings, Luxor, Egypt
The Valley was used from approximately 1539 BC to 1075 BC, and contains some 60 tombs, starting with Thutmose I and ending with Ramesses X or XI.
The Valley of the Kings also had tombs for the favourite nobles and the wives and children of both the nobles and pharaohs. Around the time of Ramesses I the Valley of the Queens was begun, although some wives were still buried with their husbands.
Graffiti on the walls of some of the tombs indicate that this was an attraction during Roman times.
The quality of the rock in the Valley is very inconsistent. Tombs were built, cutting through various layers of limestone, each with its own quality. This poses problems for modern day conservators, as it must have to the original architects. Building plans were probably changed on account of this. The most serious problem are the shale layers. This fine material expands when it comes into contact with water. This has damaged many tombs, particularly during floods.
Grave robbers
Almost all of the tombs have been ransacked, including Tutankhamun's, though in his case, it seems that the robbers were interrupted, so very little was removed. King Tutankhamun was a minor king and other kings probably had more numerous treasures.
The valley was surrounded by steep cliffs and heavily guarded. In 1090 BC, or the year of the Hyena, there was a collapse in Egypt's economy leading to the emergence of tomb robbers. Because of this, it was also the last year that the valley was used for burial.
The valley also seems to have suffered an official plundering during the virtual civil war which started in the reign of Ramesses XI. The tombs were opened, all the valuables removed, and the mummies collected into two large caches. One, the so-called Deir el-Bahri cache, contained no less than forty royal mummies and their coffins; the other, in the tomb of Amenhotep II, contained a further sixteen.
Archaeology
Modern Western archaeology's first discovery was by Howard Carter on November 4, 1922: the Tomb of King Tutankhamun. He supervised the clearance and conservation until 1932. Tutankhamun's tomb was the first tomb to be discovered that was still largely intact.
Some members of the archaeological teams led by Carter and later archaeologists contracted local lethal viruses through food or animals (particularly insects), resulting in the infamous "Curse of the Pharaohs" modern legend.
Miscellanea
-- Pets were also buried here. There is a group of three animal tombs.
-- The largest tomb, known as KV5, was built for the sons of Ramesses II. It contains 67 burial chambers.
-- The tombs have been a tourist attraction since the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
Issue #60 -
Long Point
Long Point is a spit of land located on the north shore of Lake Erie, located in in Norfolk County in the province of Ontario, Canada. It is about 40 km long and averages 3 km in width.
Long Point Peninsula with bright sediment plumes. Source: NASA
The region is an important location for bird migration in both spring and autumn, including half of the eastern North American Tundra Swan population. It is an outstanding example of sand dune and sand spit formation in the Great Lakes region. In 1982, Long Point National Wildlife Area was recognized as a wetland of international significance under the Ramsar Convention. Long Point Provincial Park is also located on Long Point.
It was designated as a World Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 1986.
Issue #61 -
Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate). The primary source of this calcite is usually marine organisms. These organisms secrete shells that settle out of the water column and are deposited on ocean floors as pelagic ooze. Secondary calcite may also be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater that precipitates the material in caves). This produces speleothems such as stalagmites and stalactites. A further form is composed of oolites (Oolitic Limestone) and can be recognised by its granular appearance. Limestone makes up about 10 percent of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks.
Limestone with fossils
Pure limestones are white or almost white. Because of impurities, such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide and other materials, many limestones exhibit different colors, especially on weathered surfaces. Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or dense, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock. Chert or Flint nodules are common in limestone layers. Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands. Examples include the Verdon Gorge in France; Malham Cove in North Yorkshire, England; and the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam.
Limey shale overlaid by limestone, Cumberland Plateau, Tennessee
Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly where there are waterfalls and around hot or cold springs. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the water leaves a solution that is supersaturated with chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls.
Karst topography and caves are often formed in areas composed chiefly of limestone.
Limestone is a parent material of Mollisols.
Uses of limestone
Limestone is quarried for roadbeds, building and landscape construction, and cement manufacture.
Limestone is especially popular in architecture, and many landmarks around the world, especially in North America and Europe, are made primarily of the material. Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more elaborate carving. It is also long-lasting and stands up well to exposure. However, it is a very heavy material, making it impractical for tall buildings; it is also quite expensive. Limestone was most popular in the early 20th and late 19th centuries. Train stations, banks and other structures from that era are normally limestone. Limestone is used as a facade on some skyscrapers, but only in thin sheets rather than solid blocks. In North America, most limestone used in construction comes from Indiana.
Though the limestone used for construction is good for humid climates, it is vulnerable to acids, making acid rain a problem when it occurs in places where limestone is used extensively. The acids in the water can wear away the details of statues and other art.
Issue #62 -
Tai O
Tai O is a fishing village located on an island of the same name, on the western side of Lantau Island in Hong Kong.
Location of Tai O near Lantau Island, Hong Kong
Geography
On the main part of Lantau, a river splits to the north and west and at this fork lies the island referred to as Tai O. Two pedestrian bridges cross the river on its northern and western forks. The village is located mostly on the banks of the river. The western and northern parts of the island face the South China Sea and are uninhabited.
San Ki bridge in Tai O, Lantau Island, Hong Kong
History
Nearby archaeological sites date back to the Stone Age, but verifiable permanent human settlements on Tai O date to only 3 centuries ago. There are unsubstantiable stories of Tai O being the base of many smuggling and piracy operations, with the inlets of the river providing excellent protection from the weather and serving as a hiding place. At nearby Fan Lau, a fort was built in 1729 to protect shipping on the Pearl River. Smuggling of guns, tobacco, drugs and people remain documented as illegal activities, both into and out of mainland China.
When the British came to Hong Kong, Tai O was known as a Tanka village. During and after the Chinese Civil War, Tai O became a primary entrypoint for illegal immigration for those escaping from the People's Republic of China. Some of these immigrants, mostly Han Chinese, stayed in Tai O, and Tai O attracted people from other Hong Kong ethnic groups, including Hoklo and Hakka.
The fishing lifestyle is gradually dying out. While many residents continue to fish, it does not provide a sustainable income. There is still a public school on the island and most young people move out when they come of age. In 2000 a large fire broke out destroying many residences. The village now comprises mainly squatter huts and dilapidated stilt houses. The government of the HKSAR had proposed a new town on the site but it met with grassroots opposition. Plans for a container cargo terminal, a theme park, and residential towers have also been proposed. There is currently a large land reclamation project on the Lantau side.
Reclamation Project at Tai O, Lantau Island, Hong Kong
Sights and cuisine
Also known as the "Venice of Hong Kong", Tai O is also a hot tourist spot for both foreigners and residents of other parts of Hong Kong, despite damage by the fire in July 2000. The pangwu, stilt houses, built right over the waterways are scenic. A rope bridge tended by local women used to be quite popular with visitors, but it has been replaced with a steel pedestrian bridge.
Tai O is well known for traditional salted fish. Handmade sauces and fish paste are sold from doorways and storefronts.
For a small fee, some residents will take tourists out on their boats along the river and for short jaunts into the sea. Many tourists come to Tai O specifically to take these trips in the hope to see pink dolphins.
Transport
Tai O can be reached by bus (New Lantao Bus) from Mui Wo, Tung Chung or Ngong Ping.
There are ferry piers on Tai O, at Wing Hong Street and Shek Tsai Po. New World First Ferry operates the following routes connecting to Tai O:
-- Tuen Mun, Tung Chung, Sha Lo Wan, and Tai O
-- Tuen Mun to Tai O (weekends only)
Issue #63 -
Þingvellir
Þingvellir (Icelandic "Þing": parliament, "vellir": plains) is a place in the southwest of Iceland near the peninsula of Reykjanes and the Hengill volcanic area.
Þingvellir in autumn
It is famous for two reasons:
-- As one of the most important places in Icelandic history. In the year 930 there was founded the Alþingi, one of the oldest parliamentary institutions of the world. At this historical place, there was also decreed the independence of the Republic of Iceland on June 17, 1944.
-- As a national park (since 1928) because of the special tectonic and volcanic environment. The continental drift can be clearly seen in the cracks or faults which are traversing the region, the biggest one, Almannagjá, being a veritable canyon. This causes also the often measurable earthquakes in the area (see link).
Almannagjá at Þingvellir
Þingvellir is situated on the northern shore of Þingvallavatn, the biggest lake of Iceland. The river Öxará traverses the national park and is forming a waterfall at the Almannagjá, called Öxaráfoss. Together with the waterfall Gullfoss and the geysirs of Haukadalur, Þingvellir is part of the most famous sights of Iceland, the Golden Circle.
Location of Þingvellir in Iceland
Þingvellir is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Official site
Issue #64 -
Water cycle
The water cycle—technically known as the hydrologic cycle—is the circulation of water within the earth's hydrosphere, involving changes in the physical state of water between liquid, solid, and gas phases.
The hydrologic cycle refers to the continuous exchange of water between atmosphere, land, surface and subsurface waters, and organisms. In addition to storage in various compartments (the ocean is one such "compartment"), the multiple cycles that make up the earth's water cycle involve four main physical actions: evaporation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow.
The water cycle
-- Evaporation is the transfer of water from bodies of surface water into the atmosphere. This transfer entails a change in the physical nature of water from liquid to gaseous phases. Along with evaporation can be counted transpiration from plants. Thus, this transfer is sometimes referred to as evapotranspiration.
-- Precipitation is atmospheric moisture that has previously condensed to form clouds (changed from the gas phases to a liquid or solid phase), falling to the surface of the earth. This mostly occurs as rainfall, but snow, hail, fog drip, and other forms participate as well.
-- Infiltration into the ground is the transition from surface water to groundwater. The infiltration rate will depend upon soil or rock permeability as well as other factors. Infiltrated water may reach another compartment known as groundwater (i.e. an aquifer). Groundwaters tend to move slowly, so the water may return as surface water after storage within an aquifer for a period of time that can amount to thousands of years in some cases. Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures.
-- Runoff includes the variety of ways by which land surface water moves down slope to the oceans. Water flowing in streams and rivers may be delayed for a time in lakes. Not all precipitated water returns to the sea as runoff; much of it evaporates before reaching the ocean or reaching an aquifer.
-- Subsurface flow incorporates movement of water within the earth, either within the vadose zone or aquifers. After infiltrating, subsurface water may return to the surface or eventually seep into the ocean.
Issue #65
