In pictures: Charcoal in Chad
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Modern fuel
Charcoal is the most popular type of fuel in Chad, and is seen as more modern than dry firewood.
It burns for longer than wood, so it is cheaper to use, and it produces less smoke. It is especially popular in big towns.
Unfortunately, charcoal is less efficient, so more trees must be cut down. -
Symbolic guns
Issa is chief warden in Gassi Forest, just south of the capital, Ndjamena. He heads a mobile patrol unit to stop people felling trees to make charcoal.
Although chopping down "green wood" – living trees – is illegal, up to 200 trees are cut down each night, Issa says.
"The tree-cutters are armed with knives and machetes. We have guns but they don't work and we are not allowed to use them, so what is the point?" -
Disappearing forests
Despite its reputation as a dry and dusty country, southern Chad is home to many forests.
But over the years these have been systematically chopped down by people seeking firewood, and now charcoal.
As well as being illegal to chop down trees, making charcoal is also forbidden.
To find the people who supply the cities with this fuel, you have to search deep inside the bush. -
'No choice'
Dede Mahamat is a charcoal producer, who says he is forced into making charcoal to feed his family.
"I know what IÂ’m doing is bad for the environment," says Dede, "but I have no choice. My family has nothing.
"With the money I make, I can at least buy some sugar for my four young children."
He says making charcoal is far more profitable than selling his sheep's milk. He cannot afford to send his children to school. -
Elephants
After gathering the wood, Dede covers the logs with sand and sets fire to them.
In four or five days, he will have enough for seven or eight sacks of charcoal.
Dede says this area used to be covered with lush forest, and you could even see elephants.
But now the area has been destroyed. -
'Intellectual'
Tingwa is 30, and makes charcoal because he cannot find work in his village.
He says he only makes charcoal once a month or so, because the work is very difficult physically.
"IÂ’m an intellectual," says Tingwa, "but am forced to do this to feed my three children.
"My children eat, my wife eats, I eat. I have to find money somewhere." -
Team effort
After the wood Tingwa collected has finished burning, he must rake all the charcoal together, and then it is put into sacks.
He has enough in this batch for eight sacks, which he will sell for $5 each.
He works in a team, who then transport the charcoal by donkey to his village. -
Baking bricks
Charcoal has many uses in Chad. It is used in the home for cooking, and hot coals are also loaded into irons in households without electricity.
But it is also used on an industrial scale. These men are stoking the fire of a giant oven, powered by charcoal.
They are using the heat to bake mud bricks. After four days in this kiln, the bricks will be baked and ready for sale. -
Family tradition
Once the charcoal arrives in the cities, it must be delivered quickly to customers. Mahamat is 50, and charcoal selling is a family tradition.
He starts work at dawn each day, and is finished by mid-morning.
"I like my work," says Mahamat, "except for the problem I have with forest controllers.
"Because there is no official tax rate, they just make the price up. They used to charge 20 US cents per sack to bring charcoal out of the forest but now they want 60." -
Good living
MahamatÂ’s wife and children are busy making tea before he sets off for work selling charcoal.
Mahamat says he earns a good living - he can send all his 10 children to school.
He simply does not think about the environmental consequences of his work, he says.
"As you can see, we even use charcoal at home ourselves, he says. So who am I to tell people what they should or shouldnÂ’t do?"
Photos and text: Stephanie Hancock